From the time of Sulla's victory in the civil war through to his death, one member of the Marian faction managed to hold on and resist. A member of Cinna's opposition government in the late 80's BC, Quintus Sertorius served as a Praetor in 83 BC, and was active with Scipio Asiagenus and Norbanus against Sulla in the civil war.
Prior to Sulla's victory, however, Sertorius was fortunate enough to be appointed as governor of Hispania in late 83 BC. He was able to leave Rome, and avoid Sulla's proscriptions, taking his post by 82 BC.
Sertorius used his distance from Rome, as well as the turmoil that plagued the political system, to begin the concept of an alternative Roman Republic. An obvious opponent to Sulla's plans, the dictator wasted little time in going after him. An army was sent in 81 BC to depose the governor of Hispania, and he prepared to meet it with his mostly Spanish natives.
'Quintus Sertorius and the Horse Tail' by Gerard van der Kuijl (1604–1673)
A legate set to meet the Sullan army in the Pyrenees was murdered, however, and Sulla's men took control of Hispania. Sertorius, outnumbered and outclassed, fled to Mauretania in northwest Africa to avoid proscription.
His self-imposed exile wouldn't last long however. Within the next year, 80 BC, the large and formidable Lusitani tribe had had enough of rule by Sulla's legates. They prompted Sertorius to return to Spain, with the promise of support against his enemies in Rome. He immediately won two victories over the Roman forces, and set himself up in a position of relative security.
At some point after his return, along with a great number of Romans who had been victims of Sulla's confiscations or proscription lists, he proceeded to set up Spain as a mirror of Rome. Arranging his own Senate of 300 men, along with all the appropriate elections of Quaestors and Praetors, Spain quickly turned into a welcome destination for opponents of the Sullan regime.
With a limited number of actual Roman legionaries, Sertorius turned to his Hispania allies for defense of the new Republic. Large numbers of recruits were gathered and trained in the Roman style. These recruits pledged loyalty directly to Sertorius, rather than the government, as this was the custom in the native tribes. Sons of tribal leaders were brought to the capital to serve both as hostages against revolts, but also to receive formal Roman educations.
He adopted a white fawn, keeping it with him as a pet, as the natives believed this to be a token of favor from the gods. He played brilliantly upon the Celt and Iberian cultures in order to ingratiate himself with them.
Ultimately, the success of this fledgling 'Spanish' state depended entirely on the success and charisma of Sertorius, but it started with much promise. If nothing else, despite his opposition to the Sullan government in Rome, his measures in Hispania went a long way towards Romanizing the native tribes.
By 80 BC, the Senate was forced to take action. Quintus Caecilius Metellus Pius, another Sullan general, was commissioned to end the rebellion in Hispania.
The year 79 BC, however, didn't go Metellus' way at all. Sertorius was a brilliant commander and knew how to use his Spanish troops effectively against Roman tactics. Despite their Roman training, his tribal forces were used in a guerrilla faction, disrupting and irritating the enemy where possible, and avoiding major confrontation on open land, except where unavoidable.
Using these tactics, Sertorius inflicted three major defeats on Metellus in the year 79 BC alone.
Back in Rome, news of the defeats was compounded with more internal problems. Pompey had refused to disband his army after his victory over Lepidus, and matters were looking more and more like a repeat of previous holds on power through military force.
Pompey, however, wasn't interested in power within the city. He wanted the command in Spain, and used the threat of his veteran legions to get it. Despite the fact that it was technically illegal for Pompey to hold a command in the first place, Proconsul Lucius Marcius Philippus finally proposed for Pompey to have the command.
In a time of ignoring or blatant disregard for the constitution, it was no surprise that, in order to avoid a military confrontation, the command was given to Pompey. Before Pompey's arrival, however, Sertorius was reinforced by the remains of Lepidus' army under Perperna in Sardinia. His additions made Sertorius even more of a formidable foe.
Upon arriving in the Iberian Peninsula, Pompey faced a series of tough encounters with Sertorius and his forces. The Battle of Italica, one such encounter, was a turning point in the conflict. Despite the challenges, Pompey's tactical prowess and commanding leadership allowed him to ensure the Roman forces held their ground.
In order to increase their advantage, Pompey sought to create alliances with local tribes and secure their loyalty to the Roman Republic. This strategic move weakened Sertorius' support base and tipped the balance in favor of the Roman forces. Additionally, Pompey aimed to disrupt the alliance between Sertorius and the celebrated Lusitani chieftain leader, an attempt that further complicated matters for Sertorius.
Assassinations and the End of Sertorian War
The end of the Sertorian War was marked by a series of assassinations and betrayals.
Sertorius was known for his military prowess and oratory skills, both of which contributed to his success in gaining allies and winning battles. Despite his accomplishments, his own officers began to show discontent with his rule. Among these officers was Marcus Perperna Veiento, who became increasingly envious of Sertorius' prominence and success.
In 72 BC, Perperna, along with several other officers, hatched a plot to assassinate Sertorius. During a banquet, they managed to kill him by stabbing him to death, bringing his leadership to an abrupt end. With Sertorius dead, Perperna attempted to take control of the remaining rebel forces. However, his lack of military skill and charisma led to his rapid downfall.
Pompey and his forces, now under the command of Marcus Domitius Calvinus, capitalized on the chaos within the rebel ranks. The Roman army swiftly defeated Perperna and his weakened forces. Perperna himself was captured and executed, while many of the former Sertorian supporters defected to Pompey's side or abandoned the cause entirely.
Before his demise, Sertorius had also lost one of his key allies, Lucius Hirtuleius, who was killed in battle against Metellus' forces.
In the end, the death of Quintus Sertorius marked a turning point in the Sertorian War. His assassination, compounded by the losses of other key figures like Lucius Hirtuleius, led to the disintegration of the rebellion against Rome. Pompey's decisive victory over Marcus Perperna finally brought the war to a close, restoring Roman control over the Iberian Peninsula.
Ultimately, Pompey's involvement in the war was crucial in dismantling Sertorius' rebellion. His military acumen, strategic alliances, and direct confrontations with Sertorius turned the tide of the conflict in favor of the Roman Republic, and cemented his reputation as one of Rome's great military leaders.
Sertorius' Legacy and Historical Analysis
In the context of Roman history, Quintus Sertorius represents an unconventional figure who challenged the political norms of his time. Although he fought against the odds and managed to establish an impressive track record in Spain, the bitter rivalries and allegiances of Roman politics resulted in a legacy that veered between admiration and condemnation.
While Sertorius' life was marked by extraordinary military achievements, his story provides valuable historical insight into the dynamics of rebellion, power, and fortune in ancient Rome. Ultimately, his place in history as a Roman rebel and strategist reminds us of how military prowess and personal ambition can shape the course of events in complex ways.
Did you know...
The Lusitani are mentioned for the first time by Livy (218 BC), and are described as Carthaginian mercenaries.
