The Eagle as an Icon
The aquila, or eagle, is one the most enduring symbols of Roman civilization.
While different animals and mythological creatures served as meaningful signifiers throughout the Republic and Imperial eras, the eagle continuously symbolized power and authority.
Subsequent nations, from Poland to the United States to Nazi Germany, have adopted eagles as their national symbols, both for their intrinsic meaning and in an attempt to evoke the Roman Empire.
The Eagle in Roman Culture
Eagles played a central role in Roman life and culture, right from the society's inception.
In the city's founding myth, the brothers Romulus and Remus agreed to settle their dispute over where to build their kingdom by letting the gods decide. Remus spotted six eagles and Romulus later spotted twelve of the birds.
Their dispute intensified as they argued whether the first siting or number of eagles mattered more (Romulus eventually killed Remus and built on Palatine Hill).
The ancient Romans always associated the eagle with power and authority because of its association with the god Jupiter.
As the Republic gave way to the Empire, eagles were well-regarded throughout Rome as symbols of power and glory. Statues of eagles have been unearthed at burial sites because they were a common funerary emblem.
The eagle was considered majestic and transcendent, to the point that live birds were often caged on emperors' funeral pyres. Once they broke free and flew skyward, the Romans considered it a manifestation of the deceased emperor's transition to godhood.
Ancient Romans esteemed the eagle and adopted it as a symbol of victory. Pliny the Elder wrote extensively on eagles, noting that they possessed excellent eyesight and were skilled parents.
Symbolically, he claimed eagles were the only creature immune to lightning strikes, underscoring their divinity. Up to modernity, eagles are depicted with lightning bolts clutched in their talons.
Military Significance
A Roman legion functioned on the discipline and dedication of its soldiers. Fostering commitment among the ranks required icons to rally around and represent the legion.
From the creation of the Roman army, emblems, called standards, carried significance. A standard was the insignia carried by a group to represent it in battle. They also served a practical function by acting as a rallying point.
The earliest standard used by the Roman army was a bundle of straw affixed to a tall staff. Over time, the Romans began using emblems of eagles, wolves, minotaurs, horses, and boars.
Following a crushing defeat in 105 BC at the Battle of Arausio during the Cimbrian War, the Romans completed a self-assessment. The consul Gaius Marius led a reorganization of the military structure. Marius' reforms transformed the Roman legions from a loose militia into a professional fighting force.
As part of the restructure, he declared the eagle as the military's standard and retired the other four creatures mentioned above. Putting the emphasis on the eagle was meant to place its central qualities, bravery and power, at the forefront of the army's identity.
From the mid-Republican era onwards, the standard was a bronze or silver Aquila with spread wings.
Why Did Marius Choose an Eagle?
According to legend, Gaius Marius discovered an eagle nest as a child that contained seven eggs. This was unusual, as eagles typically only lay two or three eggs.
Marius went to a seer to interpret the omen and learned that it signified he would someday be named consul seven times.
From then on, the eagle was personally significant to him, which would heavily influence his decision to make it the trademark of Rome.
Safeguarding the Eagle During Battle
During a battle, the standard was carried by the aquilifer, or "eagle-bearer."
The standard was the mode of communication for generals and troops. A horn blast would instruct the soldiers to look to the emblem, then the aquilifer would wave, raise, or lower it to direct the troops on their next move.
The bearer was also tasked with guarding the standard. In terms of rank, aquilifers fell just underneath centurions. Within the legion, they received higher pay and better rations than the typical soldier.
The standard served as a symbol to place the legion as a collective above the individual. Losing a standard was emotionally devastating because of its intense symbolism. When one was lost in battle, the surviving legionaries were left in shame for failing their fallen brothers in arms. The group promptly disbanded and members devoted themselves to reacquiring the lost icon.
Standards often included an image of the reigning emperor or his name beneath the eagle, adding to the importance of the symbol. In many instances, the eagle on the standard was perched above an orb, signifying Rome's dominion over the entire world.
Subdivisions of legions each carried a smaller standard that identified their group number or name. These were used to quickly assemble the components of the legion when mobilizing for battle.
Famous Standards
Some of the most famous standards in Roman history were the ones lost at the Battle of Teutoburg Forest in 9 AD. During a long campaign to conquer Germania, the tribes lured three legions into the forest and launched a guerilla warfare campaign, slaughtering the Roman soldiers.
In 16 AD, General Germanicus led his Roman troops into Germania to seize the lost standards, crossing borders established by Augustus. While this move was certainly motivated by the devotion the military placed on their standards, it was a savvy political move by Germanicus.
Tiberius had ascended following Augustus' death. The retaliatory campaign waged by Germanicus rallied his troops to inspire loyalty and won him favor among the people back in Rome.
Unfortunately, his disregard for the pre-existing boundary barred him from career advancement, and Tiberius worked to block any benefit he could reap from his newfound fame.
Archeological Finds
Archeologists have yet to unearth a standard belonging to a Roman legion.
However, one of the best preserved Roman eagles is a statue unearthed at a London construction site in 2013. The 26-inch limestone statue dates to the late 1st century AD and depicts a standing eagle with a snake in its mouth.
Historians believe it sat in the mausoleum of a burial site to symbolize the triumph of good over evil.
The Arch of Titus in the city of Rome, erected to commemorate the emperor Titus, depicts him with an eagle emerging from above him. Scholars believe this communicates the deification of deceased emperors as their soul manifests as a bird.
Recommended Book:
Legions of Rome: The Definitive History of Every Imperial Roman Legion
by Stephen Dando-Collins
Featuring more than 150 maps, photographs, diagrams and battle plans, Legions of Rome is an essential read for ancient history enthusiasts, military history experts and general readers alike.