Rome and Its Empire, AD 193-284. Debates and Documents

[Ursus]

rom: Bryn Mawr Reviews <bmr@...>

Date: Sat, Mar 21, 2009 at 9:07 AM

Subject: BMCR 2009.03.39, Olivier Hekster, Rome and Its Empire, AD 193-284

To: Bryn Mawr Classical Review <bmcr-l@...>

 

 

 

Olivier Hekster, Rome and Its Empire, AD 193-284. Debates and Documents

in Ancient History. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2008. Pp.

xix, 183. ISBN 9780748623044. $40.00 (pb).

 

Reviewed by Andrew G. Scott, Hendrix College (scotta@...)

Word count: 1743 words

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Hekster's book provides an introduction to the period AD 193-284,

commonly known as one of crisis and instability. The volume is part of

the Debates and Documents in Ancient History series, the goal of which

is to present current evaluations of relevant issues combined with

texts in translation; it is intended for "students, teachers and all

those interested in the history of the Roman empire" (vii). The book

is brief (86 pages of analysis, plus another 65 of primary texts in

translation) and advanced readers would benefit more from Potter's

recent offering.[[1]] In this volume Hekster takes on the difficult

task of looking at a complicated period of Roman history in isolation

and in a brief compass and is ultimately successful in providing an

adequate and thorough introduction to the major issues of the "short"

third century.

 

The volume is divided into two parts: "Debates," which contains an

introduction, five chapters, and a conclusion, and "Documents," which

includes select primary sources in translation.

 

The introduction, "History and Narrative," stresses the general

instability of the third century, the main theme of the work, and it

presents as topics for subsequent chapters the attempts and failures to

establish dynasties, aggression from Germanic tribes and the Sassanids,

plague, and economic insecurity. The introduction also discusses the

primary sources for the period in question.

 

The first chapter, "A Capital and its Provinces," is divided into

sections that analyze the situation at Rome and in the provinces. In

the first section, Hekster suggests that, whereas Rome had previously

been stable (with the exception of the civil wars of 68-69), the year

193 ushered in a long period of volatility. To emphasize the

instability at Rome, three hypothetical lives are presented: one man

living from 150-200, the second from 200-250, and the third from

250-300. According to this analysis, which seems a bit too broad to be

effective, matters got progressively worse as time went on. Turning to

the provinces, Hekster cites brigandage, soldiers making demands on the

local population, and fighting on the frontiers as major problems. The

effect of these problems on the provinces is difficult to assess, and

regions are not treated individually (most likely due to lack of

space). The chapter concludes with a discussion of the fragmentation

of the empire (e.g. Palmyra) and the decentralization of Rome

(primarily a product of constant campaigning by the emperor).

 

Chapter 2 addresses the issues of "Economy, Armies, and

Administration," and a brief introduction presents the agricultural and

financial problems of the period, as evidenced by the decline in

inscriptions, building dedications, and shipwrecks; the drop in

precious metal content in coins; the disappearance of banks in the

West; and indications of economic instability in Egypt. Given the

scope of the book, none of these issues can be discussed in detail, and

for full comprehension several (if not all) require a broader timeline

than can be given. Additionally, the third century saw many problems

with the military, which centered on its large pay increases and

extension of privileges under the Severans. Large payouts to foreign

enemies contributed to the deteriorating financial situation of the

empire and perhaps affected the soldiers, who were unhappy with their

pay losing value through coin debasement. Hekster stresses the

importance of a "military man" as leader of the empire in the third

century, a point that is further made in chapter 4. The final section

in this chapter addresses "Consequences of change." With the increased

demands to be on campaign, the emperor formed greater connections with

military men both for his imperial staff and in local communities, at

the expense of the senators.

 

Chapter 3 examines "Law and Citizenship," with a focus on the rise of

jurists during the Severan period and the purpose and consequences of

the Constitutio Antoniniana. The analysis here becomes more focused as

the work moves to a more specific issue. The rise of jurists was a

result of the large number of legal appeals and the need for someone to

deal with them in a systematic manner (thus making it normal to have a

jurist serve as one of the two praetorian prefects). Another reason

for the pronounced position of jurists in this period may have been

Severus' interest in law, which had a subsequent effect on the system

of patronage. This discussion of jurists leads to the Constitutio

Antoniniana, and the different sides of a long and complex scholarly

debate are presented clearly. While Hekster first follows Dio's

assertion that increased tax revenue was the main purpose for the

extension of Roman citizenship, he finds this explanation insufficient,

and instead suggests that the periphery of the empire had become too

difficult to ignore. Appeasement of the gods, the enhancement of Roman

identity, and the creation of political advantages for Caracalla were

also possible reasons for the Constitutio. Consequences of the measure

include many people taking the name Aurelius, in recognition that

Caracalla had bestowed this new privilege on them; Roman practice being

adopted; Roman law extending its reach; and there perhaps being a

greater centralization of the religion of the empire around the figure

of the emperor. Hekster, however, is quick to point out that local

identity rarely disappeared and local law and custom often supplemented

official Roman statute.

 

Chapter 4, "Development and Perception of Emperorship," argues that

because there were so many emperors, who often ruled very briefly, from

193-284, it became difficult for the emperor to present himself as the

center of society. This point is complicated by the fact that making

the emperor the focal point was instrumental in keeping the empire

together. The third century also witnessed an emphasis on becoming

emperor through the military, though the real change was the inability

of most emperors to form a dynasty. Military virtues were expressed in

the imperial coinage and imagery from the same period, and the

discussion of the self-presentation of the emperor leads to an analysis

of his reception in the empire. The third century saw an emperor who

had to be available to his subjects and who therefore spent less time

at Rome. Cities still acclaimed the emperor, but had to be careful not

to do so too quickly for fear of supporting an emperor who would be

quickly overthrown by a foe, potentially plunging the city into

disgrace. Cities' lasting desire to be named neokoros shows that they

were still paying attention to the emperor. The final portion of this

chapter addresses worship of the emperor. Asserting the divine aspects

of being emperor remained one way for emperors to exert control, but

this was complicated in the third century by the fact that emperors no

longer received their own state temples; and, by the time of Maximinus,

Herodian suggests that divi had lost status.

 

The main focus of Chapter 5 is the persecution of Christians, with a

final brief section discussing the continuity of religion during the

period. Martyrdom developed in the third century, as persecutions

became organized and Christianity became a problem for Rome, since it

forbade sacrifice to the gods. Hekster goes on to assess the measures

taken by Decius and Valerian. The final section addresses "Continuity

and Change in third-century religion"; it notes the rapid expansion of

Christianity in the third century, along with the rise of Manichaeism

and oriental cults. Finally, Hekster recognizes the continuity of

traditional worship, as stressed by documents such as the Feriale

Duranum.

 

The Conclusion has two sections. "Fragmentation and unification from

193 to 284" observes that never before were there so many emperors and

usurpers in so little time, and never before had portions of the empire

seceded. Religious fragmentation occurred, and outsiders gained

prominence. On the other hand, unification can be seen in the fact

that the emperor became more important, the sense of Romanness

increased, Roman law became universal, and possibly the first steps

toward a unified Roman religion were taken. The second section asks,

"A third century crisis?" Here Hekster reviews modern scholarship and

points out that while the third century used to be seen as a time of

crisis, it is now more commonly viewed as a period of change and

transformation. Some areas saw very little change, the dominant

troubles had their origin in earlier ages, and Romanness did not die

out in the third century, but survived well into the fourth.

 

Part II ("Documents") contains sources in translation (literary,

epigraphic, papyrological), as well as images of coins, statues, and

relief sculptures. This section shows how varied the sources for this

period are and provides a good overview for the student. Readers

should be advised that not all sources are included and that

conflicting accounts of the same issues are seldom incorporated. Some

areas could be improved here. References in Part I read, e.g. "II 16

13.7844," without a page number, and it can often be cumbersome to

locate the primary source. Literary sources are often excerpted, but

it is not clear when the translator is omitting large portions of the

text. Inscriptions and coins do not always have a reference to where

they can be found outside of this volume. Finally, the translator does

not indicate the original language of the text. Despite these

shortcomings, this final section is useful in that it pulls together,

in translation, a wide variety of primary sources, and it should prove

valuable for students and instructors.

 

The volume concludes with sections on "Further Reading" (very helpful

in letting readers know what primary texts have not been included in

Part II and in recommending modern scholarship), "Essay Questions"

(helpful to student and instructor alike), and "Internet Resources."

 

Despite being forced to treat very large topics within this brief

period of time, Hekster provides a fine overview of the problems and

issues of the third century. The chronological segmentation of the

Roman empire, however, raises several questions, the most obvious of

which is why the years AD 193-284 should be considered a unit at all,

and Hekster expresses discomfort with this division (e.g. "nor should

any period really be looked at in isolation," p. 86). Numerous issues

and problems of the third century had precedents in previous periods,

and it is rightly pointed out that the great amount of continuity

within the period of the Roman empire extended across several

centuries. In all, however, this book, with its presentation of

current views on important issues, selection of primary texts, and

extensive citation of up-to-date scholarship, provides a good

introduction to the third century.

 

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Notes:

 

 

1. Potter, D.S. The Roman Empire at Bay, AD 180-395. Routledge 2004.

 

 

 

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[Ursus]

This exciting tome yours for a mere $120.00 on Amazon.

[Aurelia]

This exciting tome yours for a mere $120.00 on Amazon.

 

Hmmm... are you getting a copy?

[Ursus]

I think I will wait for it to hit the bargain bin.

[Aurelia]

Yes, seems like the prudent thing to do in these times of crisis.