Election to the magistracies

[Rugged Indoorsman]

Hi all,

 

Apologies for what is possibly another inane question on my part. I've been pondering lately some of the details and intricacies of what may have been involved in an election to the various magistracies. Hopefully someone can help out, as you've never failed me in the past...

 

1) How was an 'election campaign' conducted? How would those looking to be appointed into a position appeal to their voters? When would their campaign begin; ie, as soon as the current year's magistrates are put in place, would people begin politicking for the next year, or were there certain traditional times when such things were done? When were votes conducted vs. when did the person come into office?

 

2) How large were the fields? For example, in a given year, what would you estimate as to a number of those running for the various magistracies? (Consul, Praetor, Aedile, Quaestor, Tribune of the Plebs, etc...)

 

3) Was there a minimum, maximum, general or traditional age for a Tribune of the Plebs? Most of the other offices seem to have a fairly rigid structure (prior to Sulla at least.), but I can't seem to find details on ages for this one.

 

4) Religious offices. Who votes for/selects these folks? Likewise for the vestals? How many augurs were there? What were the requirements for eligibility?

 

5) Military legates (Such as Marius with Q. Caecilius Metellus in Numidia). How were they selected and what authority did they have? Is this the same thing as a military tribune?

 

Note, I'm primarily thinking of the Late Republic here, pre-Sulla's dictatorship; but sources from other eras would be welcome too.

 

Thanks for the help,

-RI

[Nephele]

I'm sure others here will answer your other questions, but I'll tackle your question on how Vestal Virgins were selected. There was no formal election process involved -- when there was a vacancy for a Vestal, the Pontifex Maximus would choose from among Roman girls between the ages of six and ten years. Originally the girls were chosen from patrician families, but later on (most likely by 483 BCE) plebeian girls could be chosen. Other requirements were that the girl had to have both parents still living and happily married, with no scandal in the family, and that she herself had to be physically perfect and intelligent.

 

-- Nephele

[Nephele]

The second century Roman author Aulus Gellius is a source for the requirements in the selection of a Vestal Virgin. Here is an online translation of Gellius for you, at LacusCurtius. This comes from Book 1, Chapter 12 of Gellius' Noctes Atticae:

 

At what age, from what kind of family, by what rites, ceremonies and observances, and under what town a Vestal virgin is "taken" by the chief pontiff; what legal privileges she has immediately upon being chosen; also that, according to Labeo, she is lawfully neither heir of an intestate person, nor is anyone her heir, in case she dies without a will.

 

Those who have written about "taking" a Vestal virgin, of whom the most painstaking is Antistius Labeo, have stated that it is unlawful for a girl to be chosen who is less than six, or more than ten, years old; she must also have both father and mother living; she must be free too from any impediment in her speech, must not have impaired hearing, or be marked by any other bodily defect; she must not herself have been freed from paternal control, nor her father before her, even if her father is still living and she is under the control of her grandfather; neither one nor both of her parents may have been slaves or engaged in mean occupations. But they say that one whose sister has been chosen to that priesthood acquires exemption, as well as one whose father is a flamen or an augur, one of the Fifteen in charge of the Sibylline Books, one of the Seven who oversee the banquets of the gods, or a dancing priest of Mars. Exemption from that priesthood is regularly allowed also to the betrothed of a pontiff and to the daughter of a priest of the tubilustrium. Furthermore the writings of Ateius Capito inform us that the daughter of a man without residence in Italy must not be chosen, and that the daughter of one who has three children must be excused.

 

Now, as soon as the Vestal virgin is chosen, escorted to the House of Vesta and delivered to the pontiffs, she immediately passes from the control of her father without the ceremony of emancipation or loss of civil rights, and acquires the right to make a will.

 

But as to the method and ritual for choosing a Vestal, there are, it is true, no ancient written records, except that the first to be appointed was chosen by Numa. There is, however, a Papian law, which provides that twenty maidens be selected from the people at the discretion of the chief pontiff, that a choice by lot be made from that number in the assembly, and that the girl whose lot is drawn be "taken" by the chief pontiff and become Vesta's. But that allotment in accordance with the Papian law is usually unnecessary at present. For if any man of respectable birth goes to the chief pontiff and offers his daughter for the priesthood, provided consideration may be given to her candidacy without violating any religious requirement, the senate grants him exemption from the Papian law.

 

Now the Vestal is said to be "taken," it appears, because she is grasped by the hand of the chief pontiff and led away from the parent under whose control she is, as if she had been taken in war. In the first book of Fabius Pictor's History the formula is given which the chief pontiff should use in choosing a Vestal. It is this: "I take thee, Amata, as one who has fulfilled all the legal requirements, to be priestess of Vesta, to perform the rites which it is lawful for a Vestal to perform for the Roman people, the Quirites."

 

Now, many think that the term "taken" ought to be used only of a Vestal. But, as a matter of fact, the flamens of Jupiter also, as well as the augurs, were said to be "taken." Lucius Sulla, in the second book of his Autobiography, wrote as follows: "Publius Cornelius, the first to receive the surname Sulla, was taken to be flamen of Jupiter." Marcus Cato, in his accusation of Servius Galba, says of the Lusitanians: "Yet they say that they wished to revolt. I myself at the present moment wish a thorough knowledge of the pontifical law; shall I therefore be taken as chief pontiff? If I wish to understand the science of augury thoroughly, shall anyone for that reason take me as augur?"

 

Furthermore, in the Commentaries on the Twelve Tables compiled by Labeo we find this passage: "A Vestal virgin is not heir to any intestate person, nor is anyone her heir, should she die without making a will, but her property, they say, reverts to the public treasury. The legal principle involved is an unsettled question."

 

The Vestal is called "Amata" when taken by the chief pontiff, because there is a tradition that the first one who was chosen bore that name.

 

-- Nephele

[Pompieus]

Lots of good questions - thin evidence for some though - and forum member more knowledgeable than I. But...

 

The priesthoods initially were patrician offices filled by co-option by the other members of each college, but at some time (I think in the second century BC) they were opened to plebians and a bill was passed requiring election by one of the assemblies (I forget which - some knowledgeable member will no doubt advise). Smith's Dictionary on the "Lacus Curtius" website (//penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/home) has many articles on religious topics.

 

Legati were usually appointed and assigned to a magistrate or pro-magistrate with imperium by the senate, who usually also determined how many the commander would have. Sometimes, however. as a mark of respect, the senate allowed the commander to appoint his own legates. They could perform any military or diplomatic task assigned by their chief, such as command of a legion or expedition, or conducting negotiations. These were usually men of some rank, often ex-praetors.

 

Six Military Tribunes were assigned to each legion and served as a sort of staff or as sub commanders of the legion. These were younger, less experienced men than the legates. The Centuriate Assembly elected the tribunes for the first four legions raised each year, when more than four legions were raised the additional tribunes were selected by the senate or magistrates - I'm not sure how that worked.(?)

 

Apparently the candidates for office went around the forum in their whitened togas surrounded by their entourage soliciting the votes of the people. But there are also sources that indicate that this was seen as demeaning the dignity of the office being sought as well as the nobles who did it. (?)

 

There were several changes in the schedule for magistrates taking office but I think in the late republic consuls took office on 1 January and tribunes on 10 December.(?)

[Primus Pilus]

1) How was an 'election campaign' conducted? How would those looking to be appointed into a position appeal to their voters? When would their campaign begin; ie, as soon as the current year's magistrates are put in place, would people begin politicking for the next year, or were there certain traditional times when such things were done? When were votes conducted vs. when did the person come into office?

 

This definately doesn't provide all the detail you are looking for, but it's a decent start.

 

http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roma...A*/Ambitus.html

 

You can use the William Smith Dictionary as a guide by referring to each individual office as well. Each one will provide some more insight into the individual election process.

 

http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roma...IGRA*/home.html

 

3) Was there a minimum, maximum, general or traditional age for a Tribune of the Plebs? Most of the other offices seem to have a fairly rigid structure (prior to Sulla at least.), but I can't seem to find details on ages for this one.

 

There doesn't seem to have been a recorded minimum age... at least not in the Lex Villia Annalis. It was a relatively important office and was often used as a stepping stone to the praetorship and consulship (min age 39 and 42 to campaign for office, respectively). Sometimes one might be a quaestor first (min. age 30 post-Sulla... the requirement seems to have been 10 years of military service prior to Sulla which probably would have made a candidate roughly the same age anyway) which is an indication that a tribune would be older, but this was not a necessity. There are tribunes recorded at widely varying age ranks, but some of the more notable tribunes of the late Republic (just prior to Marius) were around 30 years of age.

 

A couple of samples... (office, years old)

Tiberius Gracchus (Qua. 31, Tr. Pl. 35)

Gaius Gracchus (Qua. 28, Tr. Pl. 31)

Gaius Marius (Qua. 34, Tr. Pl. 38)

 

5) Military legates (Such as Marius with Q. Caecilius Metellus in Numidia). How were they selected and what authority did they have? Is this the same thing as a military tribune?

 

A Legatus was not the same as a Tribunus militum, but they could serve in the same function. A legatus as a permanent commanding officer rather than a part of the supporting staff of the consul or proconsul seems to have developed some time after the Punic Wars. Legati were generally hand selected senior officers by the magistrate with imperim (generally after approval by the senate) whereas tribunes could be either appointed by the senate, elected by the people or selected by the consuls depending upon circumstances. The tribunes in the post Punic War era were senior officers but still subordinate to the legatus (generally each legion would have one legatus along with 6 tribunes) I make this distinction regarding the Punic Wars because there is little suggestion of this arrangement in the sources until the Marian period and beyond.

 

While Polybius describes in detail the duties of the tribunes in the Punic War era, he isn't as clear about the functions of Legati. They are mentioned but detail is lacking so I'm not quite sure if a legate were in charge of each legion or not. According to Polybius legions were under the direct command of one of the 6 tribunes that were appointed to each legions, who were then subordinate to the consul/proconsul.

 

In the case of your example above, the Marii were traditional clients of the Metelli and Marius seems to have been individually selected by Metellus. The power, authority and background of legati varied widely. One might be a young officer of potential serving as a staff officer to the consul, a career officer with proven command ability, a former consul or praetor who was a friend of the acting proconsul, etc.

 

Again, I'll refer you to the William Smith Dictionary for an excellent overview. Refer to section III. Legatus