Maty

As a matter of interest the Lucifera bit is the same as the 'Lucifer' aka Satan, and Old Nick. The name means 'light-bringer'. Lucifer is so called because he was the morning star, son of the morning (Isaiah 14.12), and Artemis/Diana, because she included being a moon goddess in her job portfolio. (With the feminine 'a' ending for the 'fera' part.)

There's also the consideration that Caesar had already publicly declared Octavian to be his heir(and shipped him safely abroad under the protection of a friendly legion). If he reversed this decision, he would be expected to do so publicly. So even if it were possible, changing an heir in a will would be highly suspicious, and probably damage Antony more than it helped. (Note that Antony could and did creatively re-interpret some of Caesar's other post-mortem plans, especially with regard to political appointments.)

The impression I got from discussion with road users of animal drawn vehicles in Eastern Europe and Africa is that over a longer journey even a modern tarmac road causes considerable discomfort for any animal that is not properly shod - and of course this includes oxen. Apparently there's a risk of blood blisters forming under the hoof, and of the hoof cracking. Therefore my impression was that Roman roads were primarily for foot traffic (especially military)and there was probably space at the side of the road for wheeled vehicles - pretty much the opposite of the modern system. However, shorter journeys on a harder surface were acceptable, so wheeled traffic could move onto this surface as required - e.g. bridges and towns.

'Res' in Latin has the same multiplicity of meanings as 'thing', with the added meaning of 'stuff'. So 'in media res' means in the 'middle of things' and 'res militae' means 'military stuff'. So if you have a lot of stuff, you may well be wealthy, or just a hoarder. Both the Latin and the English need you to infer from the context here. The Republic was a 'public thing'; something owned by the people who made up the state. In fact it was so important that it was generally THE public thing, but as Latin does not use articles this has to be understood by inference. So we could call the British and American democracies 'public property', and Tacitus can remark that few people remembered when the state was public property, but even a dictatorship can stick the same label on roof tiles and manhole covers.

Do we know which cohort this was? As far as I know the only African auxiliary cohorts which might be candidates were 1 Afrorum and II Ulpia Afrorum. Even if we count North Africa as a whole that gives the Maurori cohorts which served in Pannonia. There are references to a 'Mauretanian unit' on the wall (e.g. in Snowden - who seems to have assumed that 'African means black') but I can't find a definitive reference - and even then, Mauretanians were north Africans. I Flavia Musulamiorum might have included Negroes (the exact ethnicity of the tribe is uncertain) but I don't think they ever served outside Africa. I've managed also to turn up two cohorts of flavia Numidiarum, but I thought these were in Dacia and Lycia - though it must be said that light horse would serve excellently on a frontier such as Hadrian's where fast communications were paramount. As far as I know - and I look forward to being corrected - the only generally accepted Negro in the Roman army is an assumed Ethiopian called Lusius Quietus, and even that depends on a disputed phrase in Dio. I'm sure there were others, but skin colour doesn't seem to have featured much in Roman racial awareness (which generally used other criteria). Apart from a Roman military tombstone with a negroid skeleton beneath, I'm not sure we will ever know.

This may be slightly off the topic you are looking for, but the Romans would have been very familiar with the story of Achilles being disguised as a girl by his mother who wanted to avoid him getting roped into the Trojan war. There are a couple of other cases in mythology - Teiresias went the whole hog so to speak, going from male to female and back again, and Iphis, a girl raised as a boy, was transformed into a man by Isis. Caenis was another example. The only other examples I can suggest are Clodius disguising himself as a maid to spy on the rites of the Magna Mater, and on the other side Triaria, mother of the emperor Vitellius, who dressed as a soldier (or at least wore the sword of one) and 'behaved disgracefully' in a captured town. (Says Tacitus) But 'gender-bending' of the Shakespearean type was not really part of Roman (or Greek) theatrical tradition as far as I know.

There's something in Polybius which might help. He's describing the mid-Republic, but he says that at this time the Romans switched from their earlier equipment, which may be from the time you are looking at. Basically he says that the old shields were not properly weather-proofed and rotted and peeled, and the javelins were so light and bendy that they bounced in the hand and this screwed up accuracy.

Thanks for finding this one! The eastern ports of the empire had a mini-boom in trade in the early fifth century, and Bathonea would have been perfectly located to take advantage of this. The problem for those interested in the earlier city is that most of this was probably wiped out by fifth-century developers. But it's going to be another site to watch ...

Here's some contemporary news reporting on a major breaking story, as told by Polybius a generation later. "On the news of the defeat reaching Rome, the civic leaders were unable to suppress or soften reporting of the facts because of the scale of the disaster. [A Roman defeat by Hannibal]. Therefore they summoned a meeting of the people to announce it. Therefore the Praetor mounted the Rostra and stated 'we have been defeated in a great battle.'" The Acta appears to have been in imperial innovation. By and large, news would seem to have been propagated by the old fashioned method of public announcements (especially at public ceremonies) and posting notices. We have some of these notices surviving from Pompeii for scheduled gladiator games.

There's a comment (by Migdal, I believe) that goes 'If an oligarchy cannot hold power in a democracy, then it is not fit to hold power in any form of government.' With this observation in mind, it is interesting to note how many leading families of the world's largest and most powerful democracies (India and the USA) not only know each other socially but get elected to power generation after generation. Cicero (in De Leg Ag 2.100) talks of those 'designated consuls in their cradles'. This applies pretty well to the Ghandis and Kennedys of today.

Thank you! Do you know which specific piece this is? I mean the original in Altemps or another copy? The source from where I took the picture from wasn't clear but I believe it to be a copy. The bust in Altempts stops at the neck and this one does not. Yep, I'm happy to agree that this is probably Hera. My comment was aimed at the original statue by which GhostofClayton started the discussion - which is apparently Venus from Augusta Raurica. (Which is where I believe the other 'Bacchus' statuette in our discussion also originates ...)

Hmm. The diadem points to Hera, but the exposed upper body is a powerful argument against. One of the joys of a large library plus the internet is that I was able to trace a picture of the original statuette, which is indeed from Augusta Raurica, and identified as Venus. My guess is that there was either supporting evidence (e.g. dedications) or that those making the identification went with the low-slung girdle. Generally, topless goddesses (e.g. Artemis) have their lower garments arranged in a more practical fashion. Incidentally Hera's diadem generally has a veil dangling from the back, for reasons I don't fully comprehend. Apart from the diadem, giveaways that a statue might be Hera include a lotus-topped staff, and the presence of apples, a lion, peacock or cuckoo. Also Hera is more likely than other goddesses to be seated.

io Saturnalia! From little Rossland in the Kootenays of British Columbia. Over a metre of snow outside the front door ... Mulled wine by the fire tonight mmmm

This might be Bacchus - more particularly Antinoos in the role of Bacchus. My reasoning is as follows. The style of the statue is Roman, but the footwear is Greek-style. Therefore a statue in the Hellenizing mode, such as Hadrian might have approved of. The physique is compatible with known depictions of Antinoos. The body is somewhat androgynous, as ancient Bacchus was, and the scanty ribbons are typical of a Roman Bacchus rather than the Greek Dionysus who was generally clothed. If that ruffle around the bowed head is a vine wreath I'd say my identification is firm, but as it is, it's a suggestion.

I was sent the beaker recently to review - you should see my impression of it on UNRV very soon.

Yes Maty, that is a great example on a book that is STILL out of stock!!! What;s going on?? It's been months since it was last available?? While I'm not fully intimate with the issues faced by the publisher (my part ends when the text is accepted for publication) I understand that there was a formatting issue, which led to the book being re-typeset. This meant that it needed re-indexing, and all the internal references (i.e. see p.00)had to be redone. It's been frustrating for everyone, though I last heard that Pen & Sword were planning to have it back in the shops for Xmas. (I too was somewhat stunned by the multi-ab armour, until I was shown a real-life version.)

If you want the full philosophical discussion, take a look at De Natura Deorum (on the nature of the Gods) by Cicero. It's a contemporary Late Roman looking at how various philosophers approach theology - but be warned that it assumes that you know ancient philosophers and the myths very well to start with. If you don't, then read with something like the Oxford Classical Dictionary at your elbow and be prepared to consult it often. There's a copy of De Natura Deorum (in English) here http://thriceholy.net/Texts/Cicero.html

For an ancient Greek, the easiest way to get a six-pack with those muscular abs is to buy a bronze cuirass hammered into the appropriate shape. Available from your local armourer. (If Pericles could walk around with that silly helmet perched on the back of his head all day, bronze abs should not be a problem.) There's a great example here http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/images/1848841191/ref=dp_image_0/180-9599449-4972513?ie=UTF8&n=283155&s=books

Okay, make it a first edition of Tacitus, and I'll happily pay the asking price.

One of the issues with an outside 'veranda' is that this has security implications. Even in a large well-organized town there are issues with intruders (note the 'bandits' breaking down an Athenian house door in 'The Golden Ass'). In some areas country villas were designed to serve as temporary mini-fortresses should the need arise. Even with the villas at Herculaneum which I have been studying recently, sea views were obtained by raising part of the villa so that the sea could be seen from an internal balcony (some of which balconies were certainly large enough for a dinner party).

Like you, I've always admired (albeit with a kind of fascinated horror) the way that Crassus managed to dominate the Republic of his day. While he was alive he was more than the equal of both Pompey and Caesar. Yet - and here is where I'd disagree - I would not call Crassus a warlord. A warlord is someone who uses his army to dominate the political process in his country or region. Yet Crassus dominated primarily through his mastery of politics. Command of his two armies was given to him by the senate through due constitutional process. After the Spartacus campaign he disbanded his army in orderly fashion. Whether Crassus would have done the same had he fought a successful Parthian campaign, we'll never know. But at most he was a 'potential' warlord.

"Last question, who was in control of Rhegium? Was it a Greek City or owned by an Italian Tribe?" The situation with Rhegium was rather complicated. Fortunately, Dionysus of Halicarnassus can help you here. Here's the news for 280 with regard to the city. http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Dionysius_of_Halicarnassus/20*.html#4 The short version is that by the end of the year the city was Roman, on account of the Romans having killed everyone else on the premises. And yes, the Etruscans were still about, as the consul Tiberius Corunicanus fought against them, and won a triumph. Good luck with the mod. I've currently got a horde of Slavs besieging Constantinople in RTW Barbarian Invasion. The outcome depends on whether I can get the Huns involved...

One other thing to consider ... .The verb 'salute' comes from the Latin word salus/salutis meaning 'health'. It is easy to connect this to a verbal salute ('long live the emperor') but harder to associate with a physical gesture. Hence the fact that any greeting in English is still called a 'salutation'. In fact the verb 'salute' meaning to raise a hand in ritualized greeting to a fellow member of the military only dates to the nineteenth century. Therefore we must be cautious when imagining the Latin 'salutare' to translate as a physical gesture. Why not fudge the issue slightly Cinza? Say something like 'Having been given his orders, the tribune responded with a stiff formal salute, and departed.' This ducks the question of whether the salute was physical or verbal.

"One day, as Vespasian left his quarters, a few soldiers who stood near, instead of using the usual form with which they would salute their legate [legionary commander], suddenly saluted him as Emperor." Tacitus Histories 2.80 "Nor is any thing done without such a signal; and in the morning the soldiery go every one to their centurions, and these centurions to their tribunes, to salute them." Josephus Wars of the Jews bk 5.2 'On the Roman army'. The caution here is that 'Salute' might be a form of verbal greeting rather than a physical sign. However, as these quotes show, the significance is the same. It is a ritualized form of greeting to show respect for rank.

It's a small world. My thanks for the kind words. Pass my greetings to your son. Like him I made sergeant - acting WO even - but was not long in the Scouts. (By now that scandal about the missing good conduct badges should have been forgotten ...)