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In an excellent National Geographic article "What History Has Taught Us: Stopping Pandemics" by Richard Conniff (August 2020), there is a reference to cocolitzli epidemics that devastated Mexico in the 16th century. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cocoliztli_epidemics#:~:text=The cocoliztli epidemic or the,by high fevers and bleeding. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2730237/#:~:text=The 1545 and 1576 cocoliztli,of Mexico (Figure 1). Conniff writes: Cocolitzli 1 (1545-48, Mexico) The little-understood disease killed up to 80% of the native population. Symptoms included high fever, headaches, and bleeding from the eyes, nose, and mouth. (15 million deaths) Cocolitzli 2 (1576-78, Mexico) The disease killed up to 2.5 million people, half of population remaining after the 1540s pandemic. It caused hemorrhagic fevers and possibly was carried by rodents. (2.5 million deaths) This devastating epidemic in Mexico makes me reconsider the long-accepted belief that it was smallpox that devastated the Roman Empire. Other possibilities include the hemorrhagic fevers (possibly now extinct) that devastated Mexico in the more recent past. Here are a list of known viral hemorrhagic fevers: Source: Great Courses: "An Introduction to Infectious Disease" by Dr. Barry C. Fox If nothing else, COVID-19 has taught us that we have a lot to learn about infectious diseases. Addendum: As discussed in a previous post, parathyphoid fever seems like a possible culprit. This interesting blog suggests a "mixed infection," with both parathyphoid and a hemorrhagic fever being the culprits :http://www.historicalblindness.com/blogandpodcast//cocoliztli-the-mystery-pestilence

Nice review of garum history and use in the Roman world. Below is a video by Max Miller on his initial attempt to make garum: There may have even been a kosher Garum (although this is controversial) found in Pompeii: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garum An opposing view, however: https://www.biblicalarchaeology.org/daily/archaeology-today/biblical-archaeology-topics/the-garum-debate/ Here's an interesting post about the modern version of garum made in Italy today made from anchovies (Colatura Di Alici). http://www.sheridanrogers.com.au/everything-old-is-new-again/

What is it? Laguncula (canteen) Culture Roman Date End of 1st to end of 3rd century A.D. Material Iron and copper alloy Found Seynod, France Dimensions 6.5 inches high, 4.4 inches wide, weight 1 pound https://www.archaeology.org/issues/391-2007/artifact/8785-artifact-france-roman-soldier-canteen

Spanish authorities find 13 ancient Roman artifacts in seafood store during routine inspection You never know what you can find in a Spanish store: https://news.yahoo.com/spanish-authorities-13-ancient-roman-164000511.html

In an article by Kevin Williamson in “National Review” magazine, he gives a link to two articles dealing with the great salt myths in Roman history. https://www.nationalreview.com/the-tuesday/modern-american-wedding-is-spectacle-worth-the-price/ First, there is the powerful myth that after Rome defeated Carthage in 146 BCE, the Roman General Scipio Aemilianus ploughed the city over and salted the surrounding earth to make a once fertile region into an uninhabitable desert. Peter Gainsford, a classicist based in New Zealand and known as the Kiwi Hellenist, easily exposes the myth. http://kiwihellenist.blogspot.com/2016/12/salting-earth.html First, it never made sense to me to utterly destroy an area (by plowing it over) and make it barren (by salting the ground), only to develop the area later into a thriving agricultural and trading region in the Roman Empire. Second, salt would have been considered a valuable commodity in ancient Rome and wasting it on the ground made little sense, even though the salt may have been readily available. Then, there is the problem of logistics with salting over a large area: That is a lot of effort and expense to make a point. There is no ancient source for Carthage to be plowed and salted over. So where did this myth begin? Gainsford explains it was a creation of late 18th century and 19th century historians and widely accepted till the 1980s. But the myth may have gotten its true genesis earlier from the 13th century: So, the plowing over of Carthage and later salting the region may have been only a myth after all.

It was a difficult test: 3 out of 7 correct.

Gladius: Living, Fighting and Dying in the Roman Army by Guy de la Bédoyère Looks like an interesting book by someone whose work ( including scholarship on Roman numismatics) I greatly respect: guy also known as gaius

Did climate change play a role with the collapse of the Roman Republic? https://theconversation.com/did-a-volcanic-eruption-in-alaska-end-the-roman-republic-141196 guy also known as gaius

The Getty Institute has an interesting virtual exhibit on the legacy of Palmyra: http://www.getty.edu/research/exhibitions_events/exhibitions/palmyra/index.html Although somewhat challenging to navigate, the exhibit does have some interesting information.

Here is an excellent article of the poetry of Augustan Rome by Professor Wiseman from "Lapham's Quarterly" (July 31, 2019). https://www.laphamsquarterly.org/roundtable/literary-arena/?ca_key_code=F98LQA1

It is staggering to think about the impact of disease, even on more modern armies. https://www.nationalreview.com/corner/they-too-gave-all-american-war-deaths-from-disease/ One can only imagine the devastation on ancient populations and armies at a time before there was any understanding of disease and its prevention .

Great question and I have no idea. I guess the choice of flowers used would depend on the season and availability. Flora was the Roman goddess of flowers and the season of spring. According to Wikipedia: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flora_(mythology) Obviously, roses played a central role in the festival of Rose (Rosalia) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosalia_(festival) Roman poet and satirist Persius (AD 34-62) stated that during the festival of Floralia: (Both vetches and lupins are flowering plants.) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Floralia Lavender was frequently used in ancient Rome as soap and perfumes. I would be surprised if it weren't used in religious ceremonies. Although marigolds were common in ancient Roman gardens and were used medicinally (for wounds and cramping). It was even thought to possess magical qualities, but I am uncertain about its use in religion. Not being a botanist, I don't understand the terminology of the marigold. If my understanding is correct, however, the marigold is from the genus Calendura. If the marigold is included, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calendula https://www.permaculturenews.org/2018/03/30/calendula/ guy also known as gaius

I found this interesting and entertaining video on the importance of Egypt on ancient Rome, especially as a conduit for trade (thus, a source of revenue), as well as a rich supply of Egyptian grains and other local products. Not mentioned in this fascinating video was that the Egyptian economy was a closed one (coins did not circulate into or out of Egypt. Its coins, therefore, did not compete with circulating gold and silver coins from the rest of the Empire. According to Kenneth Harl, in his book Coinage in the Roman Economy, Egypt could create the world's first successful fiduciary currency. (Fiduciary currency cannot be redeemed for a monetary reserve of a precious metal such as gold or silver. This is similar to paper currency or modern coinage.) This allowed for a stable economic system not nearly as devastated by the frequent devaluations of the coinage elsewhere in the empire. guy also known as gaius

The magazine "Archaeology" from the Archaeological Institute of America is always a great source of insightful study. Here is an interesting and controversial article about the Parthenon: https://www.archaeology.org/issues/380-2005/digs/8615-digs-greece-parthenon-name guy also known gaius

A nice basic video on Latin for those of us who either failed at learning Latin or never attempted: guy also known as gaius

Here's an article from two years ago, offering hope for the future despite uncertain times. It still gives hope even today: WHY I’M STAYING IN ROME, EVEN WHILE IT CRUMBLES A British Novelist Will Remain in the Eternal City Because of What Its Past Can Teach About Surviving the Present https://www.zocalopublicsquare.org/2018/08/14/im-staying-rome-even-crumbles/ideas/essay/

Given the current global fiscal crisis, people are searching for historical precedents. Few of us remember the economic collapse of 33 AD during the reign of Tiberius. Despite his many faults, Tiberius and his advisors were able to navigate the banking crisis of 33 AD. The impact of the banking crisis seems to have been relieved by an early form of "quantitative easing." https://www.businessinsider.com/qe-in-the-financial-crisis-of-33-ad-2013-10 https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Influence_of_Wealth_in_Imperial_Rome/The_Business_Panic_of_33_A.D. This is better explained in the video below (at about 14:37) guy also known as gaius

https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2020/mar/18/remaining-calm-in-adversity-what-stoicism-can-teach-us-during-the-coronavirus-pandemic

We are all learning to appreciate the devastation that a pandemic can have on a society. Both pandemics and environmental disasters can have underappreciated lasting impacts on society. https://www.nationalreview.com/corner/today-in-1815-the-great-volcano-of-tambora/ guy also known as gaius

There was a very timely article in the Wall Street Journal (March 21, 2020) by Ben Zimmer dealing with the concept of a "Black Swan" event. Zimmer explains that this term "a black swan" is being used to describe the Coronavirus COVID-19 pandemic, with the resulting financial market meltdown. He explains: "A 'black swan,' for market prognosticators, is a rare, unpredictable event with serious and avoidable effects." A Black Swan, therefore, is an event which is extremely rare and unexpected but has great unanticipated consequences. Zimmer reminds us that the term was first mentioned around 100 AD by the Roman poet Juvenal in his "Satires" 6.165. So, as Juvenal searched for the woman with his desired attributes, he laments that such a woman was "rara avis in terris nigroque simillima cygno (a rare bird in the lands, and very like a black swan)." https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Juvenal_and_Persius/The_Satires_of_Juvenal/Satire_6 https://www.macmillandictionary.com/us/buzzword/entries/black-swan.html Ben Zimmer does a great job explaining how the term "a black swan" later became part of everyday speech. Juvenal was the initial source of this term. guy also known as gaius

Great article from Libertarianism.org. about the influence of Cicero on John Locke and other Enlightenment thinkers. https://www.libertarianism.org/columns/cicero-was-lockes-greatest-inspiration

During times of national stress (including economic, political, and pandemic fears), there seems to be the tendency to catastrophize events and predict the impending collapse of Western civilization. A recent thread reflected this tendency: Here's a thought-provoking article from the left-leaning Mother Jones that also predicts the fall of another empire: https://www.motherjones.com/media/2020/03/how-do-you-know-if-youre-living-through-the-death-of-an-empire/ The author, Patrick Wyman, PhD, brings up some interesting points, but I might quibble with a few of the conclusions His point about bureaucracies persisting (either out of necessity or out of habit) after the fall of the Roman Empire is insightful. (Some might cynically give the Catholic church and its bureaucratic framework as an example.) There are a couple points I might disagree with, however. I find this statement debatable: "Rome probably still had hundreds of thousands of inhabitant at the beginning of the sixth century ..." I am sure he would agree that this number is only speculation, at best. By 500 AD the city of Rome was only a pale shadow of its previous self. We can only guess but the city of Rome's population might have been under 100,000 by 500 AD. In 286 AD, Diocletian had already moved the capital of the Roman Empire from the city of Rome to Mediolanum (Milan). The death spiral for the (Western) Roman Empire and especially the city of Rome had begun long before 500 AD. After a series of civil wars, devastating plagues, and economic instability during the third century, the city of Rome was near collapse by 300 AD. The impact of regular malaria epidemics was to weaken an already debilitated city and empire. The loss of Northern Africa and control of the grain supplies to the city of Rome starting around 440 AD essentially assured the city's total downfall. I would, therefore, disagree with Dr. Wyman's conclusion, "What shrank Rome down to a mere few tens of thousands by the year 550 was the end of the annona, the intricate state-subsidized grain shipments..." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cura_Annonae I'm not sure we know for certain when the cura annonae ended or whether it could still have had any impact on alleviating hunger in the city that late in the Empire's history. The supply chain was probably too severely disrupted at this point of history. These societal breakdowns made the accumulation, storage, transportation, and distribution of food on a wide scale basis unreliable . More likely, the Goths' blocking the vital aqueducts supplying Rome in about 537 AD was the final death knell of a city already fatally weakened over the previous two centuries. I enjoyed this article, however. It made some interesting points and lends another perspective to history. (I want to thank Lapham's Quarterly for bringing this article to my attention.)

I don't enjoy modern politics and I tend to be more optimistic about the future than maybe I should. British and American elites have long fretted that they, like the ancient Roman Republic before them, would soon face an inevitable collapse. British author Edward Gibbon, author of the six volume opus The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire (1776-1789), remarked to a friend in 1776, just before the American Revolution: Maybe a tad premature? One of my favorite anecdotes in history involves Scottish economist and philosopher Adam Smith, author of The Wealth of Nations: guy also known as gaius

One of the best discussions on stoicism from the libertarian site "Libertarianism.org." https://www.libertarianism.org/encyclopedia/stoicism