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Thank you for reviewing my post, Lost Warrior! Any help or insight in understanding Galen is appreciated. Galen wrote that a good physician was also a philosopher. The difficulty in understanding Galen's view of medicine is that he mixed science with philosophy. He firmly believed in Plato's tripartite soul (a concept that I only vaguely understand): reason, spirit, and appetite or desire. He thought human health could also be divided into three body systems: the brain and nerves for sensation, the heart and arteries for life and energy, and the liver and veins for nutrition and growth. He also believed in Hippocrates' humoral theory (the need for balance to maintain good health among the four humours: blood, phlegm, black bile and yellow bile). He felt that these three body systems had to be in balance with the four humours. Illness, therefore, represented any imbalance among these systems. Because he was fixated on this philosophy of three body systems (to coincide with Plato's idea of the tripartite soul), he couldn't grasp the notion of blood circulating between the arteries and veins independent of the brain and nervous system. The understanding of circulation had to wait till Harvey in 1628. I appreciate any help you can offer in my understanding this concept. Thanks, again. I will post further on this thread.

Understanding Galen's view of medicine is very difficult for those of us brought up or taught in the modern Western concept of rational and scientific medicine. Simplistically, his approach to medicine combined three distinct perspectives: Galen's views are a combination of the scientific perspective (anatomical studies by dissection and experimentation), the quasi-scientific (the humoral theory) and the philosophic (the Platonic view of life involving three body systems and the division of the soul, along with the Healing cult of Asclepius). This would be akin to a modern approach to medicine that included science (neurobiology and neuroanatomy, for example) mixed with quasi-science (Freudian concepts of ego, super-ego, and id) and philosophy (strains of Eastern mind-body intervention and religious supernatural healing). He practiced medicine for about a half century and wrote 3-4 million words (350 treatises). His concept of medicine was always evolving and adapting. To be continued....

I watched the entire series when it first aired on HBO. I then bought the DVDs and watched the entire series with the subtitles. (I had missed some of the dialogue when the program first aired.) Finally, I later watched the onscreen guide prepared by the series

Respectfully, one must first decide for what purposes one is studying history. Become a High School teacher? A professor of history? An author of historical fiction? An amateur history buff? Unless one is becoming a professor of history at the university level, reputation and resume mean less than one would think. Personally, along with studying history, I recommend mastering some other field-engineering, mathematics, science, medicine, architecture, etc- in order to use that specialized knowledge to speak with more authority about certain aspects related to history. (Plus, there may be more job security. ) guy also known as gaius

Although I don

Quick question: I've read that 25-40% of the inhabitants in the city of Rome were slaves, and possibly an additional 5% were freedmen. Assuming that the city of Rome had about one million inhabitants in AD 160, this would be between 250,000 to 400,000 slaves in the city of Rome. This number seems high. Any thoughts? guy also known as gaius

A great book I'm reading now: Shadows in the Desert: Ancient Persia at War, by Dr. Kaveh Farrokh. Although I haven't completed the book, yet, from what I've read, I've enjoyed the book greatly. It is an easy read packed full of great information. This book is a must read for anyone interested in appreciating the great Persian rivals of Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome-Achaemenid Persia, Parthia, and the Sassanians. A description from Amazon.com: The ruins of Persepolis evoke the best-known events of ancient Persia's history: Alexander the Great's defeat of Darius III, his conquest of the Achaemenid empire, and the burning of the great palace complex at Persepolis. However, most of the history of ancient Persia remains as mysterious today as it was to contemporary Western scholars. Compared to the world-famous Alexander, the many wars won by the Achaemenid, Parthian, and Sassanian empires, and their revolutionary military technology, have been almost forgotten in the sands of the East. In its day, Persia was a superpower to rival Greece and Rome, and conflict between them spanned over a millennium. Through these wars, and trade, these foes learnt from each other, not only adopting elements of military technology, but influences in the arts, architecture, religion, technology and learning. In this beautifully illustrated book, Dr Kaveh Farrokh narrates the history of Persia from before the first empires, through their wars with East and West to the fall of the Sassanians. He also delves into the forgotten cultural heritage of the Persians, spread across the world through war and conquest, which, even after the fall of the Sassanians, continued to impact upon the Western world. So far, this has been a great book that has made me appreciate these little known, but great civilizations. I recommend this book highly! guy also know as gaius

Most the leading physicians in Ancient Rome were Greek or of Greek origin. Both Audrey Cruse in her book Roman Medicine and Robert Garland in his lecture series "Greece and Rome: An Integrated History of the Ancient Mediterranean" discuss this phenomenon. I will heavily plagiarize and paraphrase this concept from these two sources and add a few of my non-original ideas. There were several reasons for so many Greek physicians in Rome: -There was no Roman tradition for professional medicine. Medicine was practiced at home, usually by the family, with the paternal head of the family usually being in charge of the treatment and care of his family and slaves.. -There was a Roman preference for traditional folklore and homespun remedies: bath, massage, exercise, diet, etc., as well as the necessary offerings to the gods. -Medicine is a service industry; thus, the Romans looked down upon it. (This could explain why so many Greek ex-slaves were accepted as physicians by the Romans.) Physicians in Rome had a lower social status than in Greece where they were usually more respected. Early in the Roman Republic, suspicions and prejudices against all Greeks, including physicians, were so common that the Romans frequently suspected the Greeks of using poison. "They [the Greek physicians] have conspired among themselves to murder all foreigners with their medicine, a profession which they follow to make money, so as to win our confidence and do away with us all the more easily." Cato the Elder Potential culture clash There was a Roman distrust of foreigners and a suspicion of their motives. The reason for this distrust was a cultural clash. Romans emphasis was on self-reliance and tradition, with a distrust of novelty. Greeks, on the other hand, embraced scientific study, innovation, experimentation, and discovery. Roman initial dislike of Greek physicians was more than just cultural. There was a difference of cultural beliefs, as well as of backgrounds and of expectations. Audrey Cruse describes these tensions well: "Greek doctor and Roman patient, on their first meeting, did not harmonize, they collided, resulting in 'fertile fields of misunderstanding.'" The Greek physician, with his more scientific approach, would frequently ignore the more "traditional" Roman approach to health care. These differences and misunderstandings were exacerbated by difficulties of communication and terminology. " Medicine [is] alone of the Greek arts we serious Romans have not yet practiced, in spite of great profits, only a few of our citizens have touched upon it, and even these at once were deserters to the Greeks." Cato the Elder With time, Rome became more receptive to Hellenistic ideas and cultural influences, including the Greek approach to medicine. Although Greek physicians were long recognized for their ability, they grew in popularity when they embraced a medical practice more harmonious with Roman tradition, while maintaining a high level of skill and competence. The Greek physician became more readily sought out and requested for his medical knowledge and skill as the two groups-the Greek physicians and their Roman patients-became more compatible The Greek physician went from being distrusted and feared to becoming accepted and popular. The stature of the Greek physician culminated with Galen who became Rome's celebrity physician, receiving 15x the standard rate for a single operation. Galen was soon taking care of many of the most powerful members of Roman society, including the Emperor Marcus Aurelius and his son, the future Emperor Commodus. guy also known as gaius

Cato: I'm surprised you didn't take the opportunity to extoll the virtues of cabbage, a traditional Roman treatment for most everything, as did your namesake: http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roma...cultura/K*.html Those Romans sure loved their cabbage.

I'm not sure how prevalent cannabis use was in the Ancient world (for recreational or medicinal drug use, as well as for clothes and rope), but this is an interesting paragraph I found in an article. (I apologize if this article was already quoted on this site) Rescue excavations carried out by the Israel Antiquities Authority in 1989 near the ancient city of Beit Shemesh uncovered a Roman burial tomb dated to the late fourth century AD in which were found the remains of a young girl of 14 years who died in childbirth (Zias 1995) Along with the body of the mother and unborn child were 7 grams of organic material which was originally believed to be incense. Subsequent microscopic analysis of the material by the Forensic laboratories of the Israel Police and a gas chromatography analysis performed by chemists at Hadassah Medical School showed the unmistakable presence of Tetralydrocannabinol, a component a cannabis, which indicated the presence of Cannabis sativa in the sample (Zias et al 1993) Ancient Egyptian literary sources provide the first written evidence (1600 BC) the this plant was used in association with 'mothers and children', which Mechoulam (1986) assumes was probably used in the prevention of hemorrhage in childbirth. Extensive research on the medicinal history of the plant by Mechoulam (1986) and others has shown that the use of the plant for a variety of purposes was widespread in the Old World for twelve millennia (Abel 1980). Studies done by British medical researchers (Christison 1851) on the medical efficacy of Cannabis sativa in the mid-19th century showed that the plant was medically effective for women in the final stages of pregnancy in 'increasing the force of uterine contractions along with a significant reduction of labour pain', thus explaining its extensive use in the fields of health, healing and childbirth. http://www.joezias.com/HealthHealingLandIsrael.htm I'm doing a short presentation on Galen later this year and I'll share other thoughts about Ancient Roman medicine later.

I find the resources available on this subject to be very scarce. It is, however, very helpful to have at least a basic understanding of medicine to address the technical and medical problems faced by Ancient physicians or to discuss diseases such as the Antonine Plague (also known as the Plague of Galen). When studying medicine in Ancient Rome, it is important to have a good background on Ancient Greek medicine since Greeks were the majority of prominent physicians in Ancient Rome. I recommend studying the role of the cult of Asclepius (Latin: Aesculapius) on Ancient Greek and Roman medicine. Also, study the impact of Hippocrates on the development of the rational approach to medicine. Contrast the Greek rational approach to medicine with the more traditional approach favored by Romans that included folklore, diet (most famously cabbage), and exercise. It is also useful to understand the unique problems faced by Greek (or Hellenized) physicians when dealing with their sometimes suspicious Roman clientele. Robert Garland, Ph.D. has described the evolution of the relationship between Greeks and Romans in their approach to medicine and the Greek physicians who characterized this changing relationship. Initially, Greek physicians were held with suspicion and even hostility (best characterized by the Greek physician Archagathus, later called

[quote name='Julia C

As one of many Americans celebrating Independence Day, I am reminded of the great influence Ancient history had on the formation of our Republic. I

Not so fast there, NN. Tacitus, who was no friend of the Christians, squarely indicts Nero for persecuting the Jesus cult: But all human efforts, all the lavish gifts of the emperor, and the propitiations of the gods, did not banish the sinister belief that the conflagration was the result of an order. Consequently, to get rid of the report, Nero fastened the guilt and inflicted the most exquisite tortures on a class hated for their abominations, called 'Chrestians' by the populace. Christus, from whom the name had its origin, suffered the extreme penalty during the reign of Tiberius at the hands of one of our procurators, Pontius Pilate, and a most mischievous superstition, thus checked for the moment, again broke out not only in Judaea, the first source of the evil, but even in Rome, where all things hideous and shameful from every part of the world find their center and become popular. Accordingly, an arrest was first made of all who pleaded guilty; then, upon their information, an immense multitude was convicted, not so much of the crime of firing the city, as of hatred against mankind. Mockery of every sort was added to their deaths. Covered with the skins of beasts, they were torn by dogs and perished, or were nailed to crosses, or were doomed to the flames and burnt, to serve as a nightly illumination, when daylight had expired. I, too, appreciate the excellent review of the book. I briefly mentioned the book a few months ago when I discussed another good book on early Christianity by Rodney Stark, The Rise of Christianity: How the Obscure, Marginal Jesus Movement Became the Dominant Religious Force in the Western World in a Few Centuries. Nevertheless, I've become increasingly skeptical of passages attributed to Ancient writers concerning Christianity. (I think Josephus is the most blatant example.) And don't get me started about the "infallibility" of the bible. Cato, I think the last part of Tacitus's passage is most suspicious: Nero offered his gardens for the spectacle, and was exhibiting a show in the circus, while he mingled with the people in the dress of a charioteer or stood aloft on a car. Hence, even for criminals who deserved extreme and exemplary punishment, there arose a feeling of compassion; for it was not, as it seemed, for the public good, but to glut one man's cruelty, that they were being destroyed. This part of the passage sounds like something a Chrisitian scribe would have inserted for dramatic effect. guy also known as gaius

Here's a second article on the great classicist David Beckham's tattoos. Although this tattoo is in English, its original source is from Latin: April 18, 2007 David Beckham's new tattoo -- a classicist writes Becks has apparently decided that a move to Los Angeles demands a new tattoo or two. Not a feeling that the prospect of LA induced in me, but therein I suppose lies the difference between us. Amongst the many designs now decorating the celebrity right forearm is what was originally a Latin slogan, here rendered in English: "Let them hate (me) as long as they fear (me)." The idea is, or so I have read, to express something of Becks anxieties about the transatlantic move, and his determination not to be battered by any adverse publicity. I don't mind if they don't actually like me, so the message runs, but don't let them mess with me. Or, to quote a "source": "David . . . .believes his tattoos can ward off negativity and help him battle adversity." The original reads in Latin: Oderint dum metuant (a nice example for you Latinists of the use of "dum as proviso, plus the subjunctive"). According to the Daily Mail, Becks first of all wanted the real Latin, but it was the word dum ("provided that/as long as") that caused the problem. Could it be taken as a reflection of the mental agility of Mr Beckham? Better perhaps to play safe by avoiding it entirely? In fact as any classicist must know, the word "dum" is only part of the reason why having oderint dum metuant or its English equivalent might be an own goal. So far as we can tell, the slogan goes back to the second-century BC Roman tragedian Accius. Almost all of Accius' work is lost, but it is pretty certain that this phrase came from his play Atreus, and from the mouth of the title role itself. In ancient mythology and culture, this King Atreus was the limit case of tyranny and monstrosity-in fact, so much the limit case that he was the man who, so the story went, chopped up the children of his brother Thyestes, and then served them up to him in a stew (minus the hands and feet). From then on, it became a catchword for the kind of ethics that a proper constitutional Roman deplored in a tyrant. Cicero and Seneca both regarded the sentiment as beyond the pale (hardly surprising, Seneca acerbically observed, that Accius' play was written during the dictatorship of the bloodthirsty dictator Sulla). According to Suetonius, it was a favourite saying of the bonkers and wicked emperor Caligula - enough said? It was so well known that the wily emperor Tiberius seems to have parodied the phrase, pointedly. Confronted with some nasty popular squibs, he apparently responded "Let them hate me, provided that they respect what I am doing." No rule of terror here, was the (somewhat disingenuous) message. So our celebrity hero is sporting a slogan that, for the Romans, its originators, was the instant identifier of the excesses of tyranny? Enough said? Posted by Mary Beard on April 18, 2007

Pop culture breathes life into Latin ANDREW WELSH-HUGGINS Associated Press Tuesday, December 4, 2007 The Latin language, on life support for decades, got a brief reprieve when the world of Harry Potter introduced such words as "expelliaramus" - a spell to disarm an enemy - and Latin-sounding names like Remus and Albus. But this kind of pop-culture exposure does little to paper over the bad news: The ancient tongue once common to most of the civilized world, not to mention the language of the Roman Catholic Mass until about 50 years ago, is fading fast. In 1960, as Harry Mount relates in his book "Carpe Diem: Put a Little Latin in Your Life" (Hyperion, 259 pages, $19.95), 60,000 British schoolchildren did Latin O levels - the basic exam for British 16-year-olds. Today, only 10,000 do a much more basic replacement. Even fewer go on to take Latin in upper levels of schools. The picture is a little brighter in the United States, Mount says, where the number of children taking the National Latin Exam has soared in recent years. But the language still has migrated largely to universities and a small group of die-hard classics majors. The question, of course, is, who cares? With few exceptions, Latin hasn't been a spoken language for centuries. A basic grounding is helpful for science, law and spelling - and tracking the Hogwarts gang - but it's hard to dispute the idea that schools' scarce resources should be spent on teaching languages more relevant to today: Arabic, say, or Chinese. Still, Mount makes a strong case for the study of Latin as a window into cultural, literary and archaeological history. He mixes humor and multiple pop-culture references with heavier reflections on Latin and its legacy in his book. Who knew, for example, that soccer megastar David Beckham and actress Angelina Jolie share in common a penchant for Latin tattoos? Jolie gets a mention for a Latin phrase on her pregnant belly, "Quod me nutrit me destruit" ("What nurtures me destroys me"). Of Beckham's nine tattoos, Mount reports, three are in Latin, including the phrase "Ut Amem et Foveam," or, "That I might love and cherish," on his left forearm. Along the way, we get a history of the appearance of togas on college campuses thanks to the 1978 movie "Animal House" and the toga popularized by Bluto Blutarsky, the character played by John Belushi. Mount also manages to squeeze in references to "The Dukes of Hazzard," "Star Trek" and novelist Thomas Harris' Hannibal Lecter. There's also a brief stop by Monty Python, remembered for the scene in "Life of Brian" where a Roman centurion, played by John Cleese, corrects the poor Latin of graffiti-writing Brian. We also learn of the popularity of Ista, a German hip-hop band that raps in Latin. Keeping it relevant to real life, Mount recalls the phrase "annus horribilis," or horrible year, coined by Queen Elizabeth to describe her 1992, "a bloody terrible year, when Windsor Castle burned down, and the marriages of Prince Charles, Prince Andrew and Princess Anne fell apart." Dominoes, it emerges, come from the word "dominus," or master, and the dark cloaks these medieval lords wore with holes cut into them for eyes. Hence, the dark blocks with white dots. Neat. As jokey as Mount likes to be, he doesn't skirt the rigor required to learn Latin. And he does his best to drive home his argument that Latin does matter, even now. "Knowing a bit of Latin is an invitation to the biggest room in the building, with a view down the corridor to all the succeeding ages," he writes.

My favorite scene from HBO

Although I enjoyed your review, I thought it was a little bit harsh. The second season of the series was obviously negatively impacted by budget constraints and a rushed schedule. The series had to balance popular appeal with historical accuracy. In some areas they failed, but in many other areas they were very successful. I agree that the criminal underworld subplot was too much. However, any series that mentions Regium (modern day Reggio Emilia, where my cousins live), the Battle of Mutina (near modern day Modena, Reggio Emilia

The fate of Lucius Vorenus is still unclear. If the contract is able to be signed, he will have survived. Despite the historical inaccuracies, the series generated interest in the Classics. That is always good. My concern is "what time frame would the movie deal with?" Marc Antony is dead. The succession issue was already dealt with in "I, Claudius." The Pax Augusta might not make for exciting viewing, but any movie that strives for at least a semblance of historical accuracy will hold my attention. guy also known as gaius

My problem is finding time to read these days. That is why I greatly enjoy everyone's reviews. The Michael Grant book, The Climax of Rome: The Final Achievements of the Ancient World AD 161-337 is hard to find. Nevertheless, it can be purchased at HamiltonBook .com for $5.95. guy also know as gauis

Thank you for the excellent review. I, too, enjoyed the book. Another great book dealing with the "Third Century Crisis" (my favorite period in Roman History) is Michael Grant's The Climax of Rome. Thanks, again. guy also known as gaius

The source is the Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum (CIL) 13.1983. What the heck is CIL? I certainly won't have known a few years ago. It contains every known Roman inscription found from the entire Roman Empire. I'll let Wikipedia explain: "The Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum (CIL) is a comprehensive collection of ancient Latin inscriptions. It forms an authoritative source for documenting the surviving epigraphy of classical antiquity. Public and personal inscriptions throw light on all aspects of Roman life and history. The CIL collects all Latin inscriptions from the whole territory of the Imperium, ordering them geographically and systematically. Earlier volumes collected and published authoritative versions of all previously published inscriptions. The Corpus continues to be updated in new editions and supplements. In 1847 a committee was created in Berlin with the aim of publishing an organized collection of Latin inscriptions, which had previously been described piecemeal by hundreds of scholars over the preceding centuries. The leading figure of this committee was Theodor Mommsen (who wrote several of the volumes covering Italy). Much of the work involved personal inspections of sites and monuments in an attempt to replicate the original as much as possible. In those cases where a previously cited inscription could no longer be found, the authors tried to get an accurate reading by comparing the versions of the published inscription in the works of previous authors who had seen the original. The first volume appeared in 1853. The CIL presently consists of 17 volumes in about 70 parts, recording approximately 180,000 inscriptions...."

Here`s my favorite Ancient Roman inscription. This dedication was found on a tombstone in Roman Gaul from a laborer for his deceased wife. (Although I`ve seen this inscription quoted on various sites, I first saw it on HBO`s "Rome" historical consultants blog.) "To the eternal memory of Blandinia Martiola, a most faultless girl, who lived eighteen years, nine months, five days, Pompeius Catussa, a plasterer, dedicates to his wife, who was incomparable and very kind to him, this memorial which he had erected during his lifetime for himself and his wife...You who read this, go bathe at the public baths of Apollo for us, as I used to do with my wife. I wish I still could." Simple. Beautiful. A sad yearning for a lost love, a love that transcends the ages. guy also known as gaius

I'm finishing the Penguin Classic translation of Ammianus Marcellinus's The Later Roman Empire (AD 354-378). Great read. Here's a sample from his description of a battle between the Roman forces lead by Julian and the Alamanni. (This excerpt is a slightly different translation I found on-line from C.D. Yonge):

Here is the famous statue in Rome of Marcus Aurelius on a horse. This horse doesn't seem large by modern standards. Thank you, Viggen for your help with this image.