guy

Thank you for reading my post and thank you for your thoughtful response. I will disagree, however, with what you wrote. First, the sickle cell trait’s being in a local population is not sine qua non (an essential condition) for endemicity of malaria. (Interestingly, other conditions also seem to confer some immunity to malaria: G6PD deficiency, thalassemia, blood group O, and a Duffy-negative phenotype.) Second, since Egypt was once the “bread basket of Rome,” I assume the Egyptian microenvironment was different with greater rainfall and temperatures more conducive for grain growth (and malaria). In fact, malaria was not eliminated in Egypt till 2010-2013. In the United States as late as 1850, almost 50 people out of every one thousand who died, died from malaria. During the American Civil War (1861-65), 10,000 Northern troops died from malaria and hundreds of thousands of others were infected. Fortunately, the use of Quinine in the Union Army reduced the morbidity and mortality from malaria. Finally, studies at Amarna, a capital of ancient Egypt from 1346 to 1332 BCE, have shown conclusively that malaria was endemic in the area (affecting perhaps half the population): Thank you, again, for reading my post and responding. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2600412/

Pictured above are some of the 3000 ceramic fragments found. Below is a video on the find: https://divernet.com/scuba-news/archaeology/ships-masts-stand-out-at-roman-harbour-site/ https://www.archaeology.org/news/12215-240315-slovenia-roman-harbor

The prevalence of malaria has been long suspected in Roman Italy. There is a debate about whether Alaric, the Visigoth King who sacked Rome in AD 210, died of malaria in Southern Italy (see post below). Recent studies of mummies have shown DNA evidence of several debilitating and lethal infections in ancient Egypt. The DNA of boy pharaoh Tutankhamun (King Tut) and several mummies showed evidence of malaria. Other DNA evidence suggests one in four people may have had tuberculosis in some locations. The mummy of Ramesses V has scars indicating a previous smallpox infection. It is thought up to 70% of Egyptians suffer from malaria. Swarms of malaria-infected mosquitos living in the stagnant pools of the Nile Delta would have made malarial infections endemic. https://phys.org/news/2024-03-malaria-smallpox-polio-life-ancient.html

Two Roman-era copper-alloy bracelets from around the 2nd century AD have been found on Anglesey. (Anglesey is the small island off the coast of Northern Wales.) The bracelets were found by a local metal detectorist and have their appearance has been influenced by indigenous Celtic communities. The Roman presence in Wales has become a field of increased study (see posts below). Anglesey, once a Druid stronghold, is now appreciated for its struggle against the Roman subjugation (see video below). Tacitus described the invasion of Anglesey (referred to by the Romans as the island of Mona) and the frightening spectacle that greeted them (Annals 14.30): https://www.heritagedaily.com/2024/03/roman-bracelets-found-on-anglesey-declared-treasure/151012 http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.02.0078:book=14:chapter=30 https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_conquest_of_Anglesey

A sculptured head and bust were discovered during construction work at an English country house near Stamford, Lincolnshire. The house belonged to the Cecil family and is thought to have been purchased during a family member’s “Grand Tour” of Italy in the 1760s. The statue dates from the first or second century AD. https://www.heritagedaily.com/2024/03/sculptured-head-and-bust-from-roman-period-discovered-at-burghley-house/150965

The Welwyn Roman baths in Hertfordshire will be documented and studied further by 3D digital imaging as part of a photogrammetry project. The baths were first excavated in the 1960s. The baths are preserved in a vault under a modern highway. They date from the early third century AD, possibly during the reign of Septimius Severus. The Welwyn Roman Baths are under the A1(M) just north of Welwyn Garden City https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-england-beds-bucks-herts-68496266 Photogrammetry further explained: https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photogrammetry (Location of Hertfordshire)

Here is an interesting article about staying cool in Ancient Rome during the summer: https://phys.org/news/2024-03-coast-dip-pool-chilled-ancient.html

Although this video predates the success of the Vesuvius Challenge (see below) to read the chared scrolls of Herculaneum, I think it captures the rivalries and pettiness that led up to their successful deciphering. This video is from April 1, 2018:

A statue fragment measuring 3.8 meter (12 feet) of Ramesses II the Great was found in Egypt at the ancient city of Hermopolis. His long and influential reign lasted from 1279-1213 BCE. In Ancient Greek, Ramesses II was called Ozymandias, also the title of the haunting poem by British Romantic poet Percy Bysshe Shelley (1792-1822). In an episode of the TV series “Breaking Bad,” the poem “Ozymandias” was featured (see video below). According to Wikipedia: “In 1817, Shelley began writing the poem ‘Ozymandias’, after the British Museum acquired a head-and-torso fragment of a statue of Ramesses II. Shelley wrote the poem in a friendly competition with a friend and fellow poet who wrote a sonnet on the same topic with the same title. The poem explores the worldly fate of history and the ravages of time: even the greatest men and the empires they forge are impermanent, their legacies fated to decay into oblivion. ‘Look on my Works, ye Mighty, and despair!’ exemplifies the arrogance and hubris of a leader who believed his dominion would endure indefinitely.” Huge Statue Of Pharaoh Ramesses II Unearted In The Ancient City Of Hermopolis - Ancient Pages https://www.livescience.com/archaeology/ancient-egyptians/archaeologists-find-top-half-of-giant-ramesses-ii-statue-completing-a-century-long-puzzle https://www.heritagedaily.com/2024/03/archaeologists-uncover-giant-statue-of-ramesses-ii/150887 https://talesoftimesforgotten.com/2019/08/15/who-was-ozymandias/ https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ozymandias

Thank you for reading my post. I think the point of Sebastian's video above was that changes after AD 165 were not necessarily a function of improved technology. The changes, instead, were a result of pressures on production and increased need for the recruitment of barbarian troops in the ranks, as well as persistent pressures from barbarian tribes. The difference between an American Revolutionary War soldier and a modern soldier reflects improving technology and tactics. The difference between a legionary in Augustus' military and a probably-barbarian Roman soldier in the Late Empire was not an improvement. It was an adaption to increasingly dire circumstances and exogenous pressures.

Sebastian, who does excellent videos on the late Roman Empire, does an informative video on the evolution of the appearance of the Roman military over the centuries. The rectangular shield (scutum) and the sword (gladius) of the early Empire would be supplanted by the equipment of the late Roman equipment, for example.

Underwater excavations have uncovered Roman remains off the coast of Portorož, Slovenia. Besides 3000 ceramic items such as fragments of amphorae and kitchenware, two different masts (dating to the 3rd and 4th centuries AD) made of either fir and spruce wood were recovered. Studies suggest that these masts had been repurposed for use as moorings or as structural supports. These finds support the idea that the port may have been part of a thriving trade network in the Roman Empire. https://archaeologymag.com/2024/03/remains-of-ancient-harbor-near-portoroz-slovenia/ https://www.heritagedaily.com/2024/03/study-finds-submerged-roman-remains/150911 https://sloveniatimes.com/40232/remains-of-ancient-harbour-found-near-portoroz

A coin from the Bar Kokhba revolt, dating from AD 132 (the first year of the revolt), was found at the bottom of cliffs currently undergoing excavation by Israeli archaeologists in the Judean Desert. The rare coin with the inscription "Eleazar the Priest."Credit: Emil Aladjem, Israel Antiquities Authority The other side of the coin, featuring a cluster of grapes and the optimistic inscription "Year 1 of the redemption of Israel." This coin and three others were found during the excavation: https://www.haaretz.com/archaeology/2024-03-04/ty-article/rare-coin-naming-bar-kochba-leader-eleazer-the-priest-found-in-judean-desert/0000018e-089e-d5ee-a78e-38de5ddd0000 Other recent finds during excavation in the caves includes Roman swords:

Here’s a wonderful pot with a whimsical face and ears brought to my attention from a tweet by Nina Willburger @DrNWillburger. It was found in a necropolis at Giubiasco, Switzerland dating from the 2nd century AD. It is currently at Schweizerisches Nationalmuseum. https://twitter.com/DrNWillburger Below is a modern mug for comparison:

Excavations in Pompeii at the House of Leda have uncovered a fresco depicting Phrixus fleeing on the back of the Golden-woolled winged Ram with his sister Helle (who is already in the water). https://amp.abc.net.au/article/103537716 This is a nice summary of this Greek myth in two different short videos.

The campaign to protect the site is now under public consultation. There is a desire to add the land to a list of nationally important archaeological sites, which would then require consent from the Secretary of State for any work. https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/cv2yxvx0j5yo

Interesting that there is a suggestion that Alexander died from Guillain-Barre.

Roman defensive spikes have been uncovered during excavations in Bad Ems of a 1st century Roman fort. The spikes were placed in ditches around the fort. https://www.heritagedaily.com/2024/02/roman-defensive-spikes-unveiled-at-the-leibniz-centre-for-archaeology/150840

Wales has been increasingly recognized for its extensive Roman presence (see posts below). A metal detectorist in March 2020 found sixteen items from the Iron Age and Roman-era in a boggy field in the community of Llanfair-Mathafarn-Eithaf on Anglesey. It is thought to have been once a sacred spring. Among the items uncovered were Iron Age chariot fittings, a metal ram’s head, and a Roman copper ingot. https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-wales-68429384

Death scene from the movie “Alexander” I do have some experience with folks with ectodermal dysplasias (ED). The ectoderm is one of the three primary layers of cells (germ layers) that form during embryonic development. The ectoderm is responsible for the formation of teeth, hair, nails, and sweat glands. Dysplasia refers to the abnormal formation of cells. Therefore, ectodermal dysplasia (ED) is expected to involve abnormalities related to the teeth, hair, nails, and sweat glands. There are around 180 different forms of EDs with different hereditary patterns. The most common variant of ectodermal dysplasia (ED) is anhidrotic (or hypohidrotic) ED. People with anhidrotic ED have a severe dysfunction of their sweat glands and would have a serious intolerance to heat. It is highly unlikely that Alexander the Great had this variant because he marched to India and Egypt, which would have been intolerable to him. Additionally, individuals with anhidrotic ED often have unusual facial features such as a saddle nose and supraorbital ridging, which would have made Alexander's face very striking. However, these features were not mentioned in historical records. The hidrotic variant is less severe, but it does involve abnormalities in the skin, nails, and hair. These individuals do not experience significant sweating issues. So, if Alexander did have a variant of ED, his only evidence is "conical teeth." I don't think "sweet scent" is associated with ED. His "hair like a lion" would also not be associated with ED, either. Usually, people with ED have sparse, fine, and short hair. This doesn't sound like Alexander's description. I, therefore, don't think that Alexander had a variant of ectodermal dyspasia, even a less serious one. https://healthjade.net/ectodermal-dysplasia/

Interesting thought. I find it interesting that conical "peg-shaped teeth" are most commonly associated with ectodermal dysplasias (ED). It is unlikely that congenital syphilis, which also can cause peg-shaped teeth, was present in pre-Columbian Europe. Later on, I will comment on the thought that Alexander the Great had ED. That said, I am not sure of the source or validity of the ancient source you referenced other than Plutarch, who wrote about Alexander more than three centuries after his death. Can you reference the sources?

During excavations at the site of a medieval shipyard at Smallhyde Place in Tenterden, Kent, a Roman head of Mercury (without the body) was discovered. This figurine in pipe clay measures 5 cm (2 inches) tall. This figurine was found in context of a previously unrecorded Roman settlement, dating from 1st to 3rd century AD, that was unearthed during excavations. https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-england-kent-68358986

A 5th century BCE Etruscan tomb has been unearthed at the San Giuliano necropolis near Rome. Hopefully, this will further shed light on Etruscan burial practices. https://archaeologymag.com/2024/02/monumental-etruscan-tomb-in-the-necropolis-of-san-giuliano/ https://arkeonews.net/a-monumental-etruscan-tomb-has-been-discovered-in-the-necropolis-of-san-giuliano-north-of-rome/

Archaeologists have recovered a Roman funerary alter dating from the imperial era at San Vito al Torre, Italy. On the side one can see the image of a winged Erotes. The Erotes are a group of winged gods associated with love and sexual desire in classical mythology. According to the article, Erotes is holding an overturned torch and poppy flower, which are thought to represent eternal sleep. https://www.heritagedaily.com/2024/02/roman-funerary-altar-found-partially-buried-in-torre-river/150649

A possible example of a proto-Basque language has been found in Northern Spain on a bronze good-luck charm shaped as a hand. It is thought to be from the Vascones, considered the ancestors of modern Basques, and it would have been placed onto the entrance of a building. The Vascones were able to negotiate with the Romans when the Romans first arrived in Spain. The Vascones were a fierce and independent tribe who were known for their martial skills. They were never fully subdued by the Romans and were able to maintain some degree of autonomy by paying a tribute to Rome. The Vascones raised at least one auxiliary cohort in support of the Roman army, Cohors II Vasconum. Galba rose up against the Nero in AD 68, possibly with support of this cohort. https://www.heritagedaily.com/2024/02/study-reveals-oldest-and-longest-example-of-vasconic-script/150606 https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/antiquity/article/vasconic-inscription-on-a-bronze-hand-writing-and-rituality-in-the-iron-age-irulegi-settlement-in-the-ebro-valley/645A15DF3D725F83D62F3D1FB5DF83EC https://es.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cohors_II_Vasconum