Primus Pilus

And gave Britain and France enough reason to remain neutral.

The conflict over both states rights and slavery had been in place long before Lincoln. His election and the secession of the southern states that had followed was the culmination of decades of political wrangling. The constitutional crisis over state's rights and slavery was already well in motion prior to Lincoln's election. There were diplomatic attempts to stop the secession, such as the Crittendon Compromise but it failed in the House of Representatives (Dec. 18, 1960). South Carolina seceded 2 days later. 6 more states seceded and federal military installations were seized even before Lincoln took office officially in March of 1861. Other than allowing the continued proliferation of slavery in the south and in expanding US territories west, there was little that could be done. Lincoln could be blamed I suppose for his determination that the southern states had no right to secede from the Union, but his choices were limited to either a full endorsement of the continuation and expansion of slavery in the United States and it's territories, allowing the southern states to secede unimpeded, or going to war.

Thanks Doug... I suppose it's all connected to those Bosnian pyramids.

While these finds in particular are early medieval and Renaissance, I posted it in the ancient forum because of the relationship to existing ancient sites in Rome. In cities so full of archaeological treasures, it's no surprise that finds in various eras threaten those of other eras in the same location.

A sixth-century copper factory, medieval kitchens still stocked with pots and pans, and remains of Renaissance palaces are among the finds unveiled Friday by archaeologists digging up Rome in preparation for a new subway line. Archaeologists have been probing the depths of the Eternal City at 38 digs, many of which are near famous monuments or on key thoroughfares. Over the last nine months, remains

Stonehenge was the site of Stone Age battles to the death, an archaeologist has claimed. Dennis Price, a Stonehenge expert and former archaeologist with Wessex Archaeology, says he thinks a skeleton discovered in a ditch around the ancient monument in 1978 is evidence that the site was used for ritual combat. The skeleton belonged to a man who had been killed by arrows in 2,300 BC and after being analysed was donated to Salisbury Museum. Mr Price says skeletons found at or close to Stonehenge have often been found buried with weapons - suggesting those close to the mysterious monument could have died violent deaths... Swindon Advertiser

Caesar's "The Gallic War" is the best place to start for primary source material on the era of Vercingetorix in particular. The usual ancient suspects should also be referred to... some examples: Appian's Gallic History (fragmented), Cassius Dio (books 38-40), and Strabo's Geography (book 4 in particular). For secondary (and/or modern) source material, Barry Cunliffe's The Ancient Celts is a quality starting point.

Here are a couple major examples of how Latin is incorporated into American government: The Great Seal of the United States which can be seen most commonly on our paper money and includes: E pluribus unum - Out of many, one (also included on our coinage) Annuit Coeptis - He approves our undertakings (from Vergil) Novus Ordo Seclorum - New order of the ages (also from Vergil) Many US State Mottos Latin is also commonly used as filler text on print material mock-ups. As an example... a graphic designer might design a brochure for a client not knowing what the ultimate text content of the item may be. In order to show how the graphic design with the appropriate text will look, Latin is generally used as the sample. See attached .pdf DEC_newsletter_layout_2.pdf

Exciting new finds at the archaeological site of Pella have opened a new chapter in Macedonian history. Beneath the ruins of the ancient capital of the Macedonian kingdom is a large prehistoric burial ground that has yielded the first evidence of organized life in Pella during the third millennium BC. It was while they were engaged in conservation, repairs and other work to highlight the site that the excavation team from Aristotle University came across more than 100 Early Bronze Age burials in large jars, accompanied by marble works of art from the Cyclades, local ceramics and metalware... Kathimerini

Japanese archaeologists of the UN Interim Force in Lebanon have completed the rehabilitation of Roman tombs in the Ramali region, east of the Southern coastal city of Tyre, Nader Siqlawi, representative of the Lebanese Directorate General of Antiquities, told The Daily Star Tuesday. "The Japanese commission of archaeology has rehabilitated the walls of the TG04 roman cemetery and the paintings decorating them the way they were in the old ages, particularly the Roman period," Siqlawi said... Lebanon Daily Star

The remains of an ancient Roman shopping parade, hidden for centuries under the floorboards of Cirencester's historic Corn Hall have been unearthed this week. Workers came across the remains of what archaeologists claim is the most significant Roman discovery in the town in the last 50 years while carrying out refurbishment work... Wilts and Gloucestershire Standard

Indeed... with each theory being so dependent upon a good deal of conjecture and limited fact, it makes for some interesting studies. However, it's come a long way in a relatively short time... it wasn't that many years ago when we were still being taught that modern humans were likely descended directly from Neanderthal.

"The following year C

One of the Isle of Wight's most important historical sites is set to be uncovered in a five-year long archaeological dig. Only part of Brading Roman Villa has been excavated so far. Now a leading Oxford University professor and 20 graduate archaeologists are to work on the four-acre site to excavate it further... BBC

A Neanderthal-eat-Neanderthal world may have spread a mad cow-like disease that weakened and reduced populations of the large Eurasian human, thereby contributing to its extinction, according to a new theory based on cannibalism that took place in more recent history. Aside from illustrating that consumption of one's own species isn't exactly a healthy way to eat, the new theoretical model could resolve the longstanding mystery as to what caused Neanderthals, which emerged around 250,000 years ago, to disappear off the face of the Earth about 30,000 years ago... Discovery News

Thanks for that extra link Kieronus. Perhaps I'm reading too much into it, but it sounds as if they may rehash some of what's already been done, perhaps in an effort to appeal to a large audience than that of HBO only. Perhaps not. In any case, it certainly sounds as if Heller will be intimately involved. Would be nice to hear from him.

I suppose it depends on what you mean by active steps. Plutarch suggests that Cato Major was quite opposed to a Greek education... Life of Cato Major 23 However, despite his suggestion that learning Greek letters would be the demise of Rome, Cato himself knew Greek well and used the style in his own writings. While he attempted legislation and or acts to limit other perceived ills of Hellenism in Rome - persecution of the Bacchanalians, ousting the philosophers and rhetoricians from the city, etc. - there is no real evidence that he did anything to actually suppress Greek language. (Except perhaps Valerius Maximus' suggestion that magistrates in the 2nd century wrote to Greeks purposely only in Latin... however, I can't find the exact passage).

Well, I'll watch it, but I am afraid I won't like. A couple hours of suspending reality won't kill me though However, I will keep my fingers crossed that Bruno Heller writes the screenplay.

Yes, I think the issue is simply Graves' translation of lictor. However, as for the number... I'm definately not positive about this, but the following passage from Cassius Dio leads me to believe that Domitian was the first princeps to use 24 lictors. I believe the Julio-Claudians used the standard consular 12. Book 67.4.3 It would seem logical for Augustus to assign 12 lictors in order to keep up the Republican facade, but I'm having trouble locating any additional definitive statements regarding the exact number. Most references are generic (accompanied by lictors, preceded by lictors, etc.). EDIT. PS, I knew that you knew what Grave's meant by Yeoman.

And that's the real question. LSG said that his criteria was "prior to the rise of the Roman Empire". Without that clause, then yes, I'd also see no reason to include some of those that followed.

Thanks Nephele, these are great to read through. Perhaps it's simply a matter of perception. They still produced several consulars in the post Punic War Republic, but they were so overwhelmingly dominant in th early period it just seems as if they declined with time. Of course, many of their early magistracies were in the pre-Plebeian eligibility era (4th and 5th centuries). That certainly might add to the perception. Interesting question though.

Yes but Finland must be ever so proud of the great Lordi. You guys are just lucky its Eurovision and not Worldvision. We'd send you Britney Spears. She thinks she has a British accent anyway.

And Julius Nepos technically outlasted him as Emperor in Dalmatia.

It's hard to disagree if your criteria is only "before the rise of the Roman Empire". Rome's power was definately spreading during Polybius' lifetime, but he was born a free Greek and even resisted Roman occupation. Though clearly a partisan of the Scipiones once he began his writing in earnest, he eventually returned to Greece and later held a position of local political importance (post destruction of Corinth). Unlike later Greek historians, Arrian, Appian, Plutarch and Cassius Dio he never held Roman citizenship nor obviously political office. His work (though some is clearly lost) focuses on themes both Greek and Roman, but perhaps more importantly seems to have been written for a Greek rather than Roman audience. While the 4 other historians mentioned above also wrote in Greek, the target audience of their work seems to be much broader. However, not being able to read the original I am influenced by the translations, so perhaps such an observation is largely conjecture.

Three false doors that served as portals for communicating with the dead are among ancient burial remains recently unearthed in a vast Egyptian necropolis, an archaeological team announced. The discoveries date back to Egypt's turbulent First Intermediate Period, which ran roughly between 2160 and 2055 B.C. The period is traditionally thought to have been a chaotic era of bloodshed and power struggles, but little is known based on archaeological evidence. In addition to the false doors, the Spanish team found two funerary offering tables and a new tomb in the former ancient capital of Herakleopolis