Severus Alexander (208 - 235 AD)
Emperor: 222 - 235 AD
Introduction
Severus Alexander, also known as Marcus Aurelius Severus Alexander, was a Roman emperor who ruled from 222 to 235 AD. Originally named Gessius Bassianus Alexianus or Alexianus Bassianus, he was born in 209 AD in Phoenicia, now present-day Lebanon.
His reign marked the end of the Severan dynasty and set the stage for the subsequent period of civil strife that would plague the Roman Empire for the next 50 years.
Ascending to the throne at a young age, Severus Alexander succeeded his cousin Elagabalus in 222 AD.
During his time as emperor, Alexander faced numerous challenges, including border wars and increasing dissatisfaction among the Roman legions. Ultimately, his weak rule and inability to maintain control over his empire contributed to his assassination in Gaul in 235 AD.
Historical Context
Severan Dynasty
The Severan Dynasty, which began with Septimius Severus in 193 AD, greatly impacted the Roman Empire. It was during this time that Rome expanded significantly and included territories from the Tiber River to Mesopotamia. Septimius Severus also erected a famous triumphal arch in the Roman Forum, exemplifying the political propaganda of the time.
Roman Empire
During Severus Alexander's reign, the Roman Empire experienced multiple challenges, including civil war, foreign invasions, and economic turmoil. The political situation in the empire was highly unstable, leading to several revolts and difficulties in maintaining control of the vast territories:
- Sassanid Empire: The rise of the Sassanid Empire posed a significant threat to Rome's eastern borders. The Persians conquered the Parthians and captured several Roman cities, including Palmyra and Hatra.
- Germanic Tribes: Along the northern borders of the Roman Empire, Germanic tribes frequently attacked Roman territories, causing significant concern for the stability of the empire.
- Roman Army: During Severus Alexander's reign, the loyalty of the Roman army was questionable, leading to multiple internal conflicts and ultimately contributing to his downfall.
During this period, the Roman Empire's monetary economy faced significant problems. Severus Alexander attempted to restore the coinage system and stabilize the economy, which had been debased and devalued in the previous years.
Early Life
Family Background
Severus Alexander was born, as mentioned above, in 209 AD in Phoenicia (now in Lebanon) to a prominent and influential family. His father was Gessius Marcianus and his mother was Julia Avita Mamaea, daughter of Julia Maesa, who was a sister of Julia Soaemias, mother of Roman Emperor Elagabalus. The family belonged to the Patrician class, a group of high-ranking and wealthy Roman citizens (Related Page: Roman Social Classes).
Childhood
In his early years, Severus Alexander was raised under the influence of his powerful grandmother, Julia Maesa, and his mother [source: historycooperative.org]. During his childhood, he was recognized as a potential heir to the throne due to his Julio-Severan family ties and the intricate politics surrounding the Severan Dynasty.
Education
As a young boy, Severus Alexander received a high-quality education, in line with his patrician status [source: roman-empire.net]. His studies were likely focused on preparing him for public and military service, an essential aspect of Roman noble life. His academic instruction would have included rhetoric, history, philosophy, and other subjects considered vital for a future emperor.
Rise to Power
Relationship with Elagabalus
Severus’ relationship with Elagabalus, his cousin, played a significant role in his rise to power. Elagabalus became Roman Emperor in 218 AD, but his unconventional religious practices and erratic behavior were unpopular with the Roman Senate and military. When Elagabalus tried to replace Jupiter with the sun god Elagabal as the head of the Roman pantheon, discontent increased.
Facing internal opposition, Elagabalus adopted Severus Alexander as his heir and co-emperor in 222 AD, probably under the influence of Julia Maesa, their grandmother. This adoption was likely intended to secure Elagabalus's position, but it eventually led to his downfall. As the discontent with Elagabalus's rule grew, the Praetorian Guard - responsible for the emperor's personal protection - killed Elagabalus and his mother and placed Severus Alexander on the throne.
Julia Maesa's Influence
Julia Maesa, Severus Alexander's grandmother, was a critical figure in his rise to power. After the assassination of her grandson Elagabalus, she played a crucial role in consolidating Severus Alexander's claim to the throne, by managing to persuade the Roman Senate to confirm Severus as the new emperor.
To strengthen his position, Severus assumed the name Marcus Aurelius Severus Alexander, and declared his association with the highly respected Antonine dynasty.
Becoming Caesar
With Julia Maesa's support and guidance, he sought to repair the damage caused by Elagabalus's unpopular rule. Severus Alexander's mother, Julia Mamaea, played an influential role in his reign, advising him on matters of state and ensuring that his rule was more in line with Roman traditions.
Under the tutelage of his mother and grandmother, Severus Alexander managed to stabilize the empire, acting as a more responsible and traditional ruler than his predecessor. His reign, however, eventually ended in troubled times, with the military growing dissatisfied with his leadership. Severus Alexander was assassinated in 235 AD, marking the collapse of the Severan Dynasty and the beginning of a lengthy period of civil strife.
Reign
Domestic Policy and Reforms
Under Severus Alexander's rule, the Roman Empire witnessed a new focus on improving the administration and legal system. He chose to rely on the advice of his mother, grandmother, and a small group of loyal advisors. One of his most notable advisors was Ulpian, a prominent jurist who contributed significantly to the development of Roman law.
Severus Alexander showed concern for the welfare of the Roman army and the Praetorian Guard. He worked towards improving their living conditions and morale, leading to an increase in loyalty and support for his reign.
He also appointed Seius Sallustius Macrinus as his Praetorian Prefect, who successfully guided the young emperor in military and political matters.
Foreign Policy
Severus Alexander's foreign policy was characterized by a preference for diplomacy over warfare. He successfully maintained peace on the Roman Empire's borders, primarily through treaties and negotiations.
One of his most significant achievements was the resolution of the conflict with the Sassanian Persian Empire, led by Artaxerxes. Alexander secured a peace treaty through diplomatic efforts rather than military confrontations, demonstrating his ability to preserve the empire's stability and ensuring the safety of Rome's eastern frontier for years to come.
Religious Policies
Severus Alexander adopted a policy of religious tolerance during his reign. He was known to have honored the Emesene god, Elagabal, and moved the Black Stone of Emesa to Rome. He also showed reverence towards the traditional Roman gods, including Jupiter, and encouraged the Roman Senate to officially recognize other deities. This practice helped maintain social harmony within a diverse empire comprising many different provinces, allowing different religious beliefs to coexist without conflict.
Under Alexander's reign, the Roman Empire saw an increased effort to regulate religious practices and incorporate non-Roman rituals into the official religious framework, thereby fostering religious tolerance and inclusiveness.
Personal Life
Marriage
Severus Alexander married Sallustia Orbiana around 225 AD. Little is known about her background, but she was likely of noble birth. Their marriage was short-lived, however, as Alexander's mother, Julia Avita Mamaea, disapproved of the union and had Orbiana exiled in 227 AD.
Interests and Hobbies
Alexander Severus was an educated and cultured individual. His interest in literature was evident, as he was fond of reading and engaging with intellectual pursuits.
Alexander held an appreciation for science and its advancements during his time. He promoted the study of scientific disciplines within the limits of the empire, encouraging further research and knowledge in these areas.
As a Roman emperor, Alexander Severus took an interest in world history. He frequently studied the great leaders and civilizations of the past, aiming to develop a deeper understanding of their impact on the world, and how he might apply their successful strategies to his own reign.
Relationship with Julia Domna
Julia Domna, the mother of his predecessor, Emperor Caracalla, played an important role in influencing Alexander's life. Although she passed away before his reign, Julia Domna was greatly respected and admired by Alexander for her intelligence, diplomatic skills, and strong influence on the Roman Empire during the Severan dynasty. He sought to emulate her successes in his own role as a ruler.
Downfall
Military Challenges
During Severus Alexander's reign, he faced numerous military challenges, including barbarian invasions and migrations into Roman territory. His weak rule led to increased pressures on the Roman Empire and contributed to the Crisis of the Third Century. The crisis began with his assassination by his own troops in 235 AD, which triggered a series of civil wars, peasant rebellions, and political instability.
Assassination
Severus Alexander was assassinated in Gaul in 235 AD, specifically at Moguntiacum (present-day Mainz, Germany). Dissatisfied soldiers of the Roman army, who believed the emperor was incapable of dealing with the threats faced by the empire, carried out the murder. His death marked the end of the Severan dynasty and the beginning of a chaotic period for Rome.
Successor
Following Severus Alexander's assassination, Maximinus Thrax emerged as his successor. He was a military commander who gained the loyalty of the troops who committed the assassination through bribery and promises of higher pay.
Maximinus Thrax's rise to power further fueled instability and conflicts within the Roman Empire during the Crisis of the Third Century.
Legacy
As stated, Severus Alexander's reign marked the end of the Severan dynasty. He and his mother, Julia Mamaea, strove to bring a sense of stability and morality to the Roman Empire after the scandalous reign of his cousin Elagabalus.
As emperor, Severus Alexander implemented several reforms in various areas of the empire, such as religion and administration. He sought to strike a balance between different faiths by promoting religious tolerance and endorsing traditional Roman values alongside various Eastern cults. The famous Elagaballium, a temple dedicated to the Syrian sun god Elagabalus, was rededicated to Jupiter under his reign.
Ancient historians such as Herodian and Cassius Dio documented Severus Alexander's reign, providing perspectives on his policies and the perception of his rule in contemporary eyes.
Cassius Dio
Cassius Dio, a Roman historian, provides valuable insight into the life and reign of Severus Alexander. He wrote a history of Rome, known as Roman History, which covered the period from the founding of Rome to the time of Severus Alexander. Dio's account sheds light on Alexander's policies, military campaigns, and his ultimately tragic fate.
One key aspect described by Dio is the young emperor's relationship with his mother, Julia Mamaea. Her influence on Alexander seems to have been notable, as Dio describes her as a highly active participant in political affairs. This relationship and her influence might have led to some of the more progressive and rational elements in his policies.
Dio also provides information on the emperor's military campaigns, such as his German campaigns, which were considered successful. However, the Persian campaign that followed was not as fruitful, with Dio depicting that Alexander was ill-equipped to handle the challenges of leading the Roman army in foreign lands.
Herodian
Herodian, another notable ancient historian, also offers valuable information on Severus Alexander's reign. In his work, History of the Roman Empire Since Marcus Aurelius, Herodian covers the time period that includes Alexander's reign.
Herodian presents Alexander as a moderate and conscientious ruler who tried to steer away from the excesses of his predecessor, Elagabalus. Under Alexander's reign, Herodian notes that the emperor made efforts to improve relations with the Roman Senate and attempted to restore the moral order in Rome.
In the military sphere, Herodian's account is less flattering. He highlights how Severus Alexander's inexperience in warfare manifested during the disastrous Persian Campaign. These military shortcomings would ultimately contribute to his assassination by his own troops, marking the end of the Severan dynasty and the beginning of the Crisis of the Third Century.
Overall, the ancient sources written by historians Cassius Dio and Herodian help us understand the life and reign of Roman emperor Severus Alexander. Through their accounts, we learn about the young emperor's relationships, policies, military campaigns, and his unfortunate end.
The legacy of Severus Alexander demonstrates a young, educated, and relatively progressive emperor who strove to bring tranquility and religious harmony to the empire. Despite these efforts, his inability to manage military forces and reliance on his domineering mother ultimately led to his assassination. The empire would continue to face a series of conflicts and power struggles after his death.
