Aurelian

Aurelian (214 - 275 AD)

Emperor: 270 - 275 AD

Introduction

The Roman Emperor Aurelian, born Lucius Domitius Aurelianus, ruled from 270 to 275 AD and played an instrumental role in reuniting the Roman Empire during a period known as the Crisis of the Third Century (235-284 AD).

Born in the Balkans around 214 AD to a peasant family, Aurelian rose from humble beginnings to become a prominent military commander and one of the so-called “Barracks Emperors”; military leaders chosen by the Roman army during these tumultuous times.

Aurelian's primary focus during his reign was on stabilizing the empire, as he recognized the need for harmony between the emperor and the military. This essential concord is reflected in the coinage of his time, celebrating the CONCORDIA MILITVM, which translates to "concord of the soldiers."

To deal with the numerous invasions and internal revolts that threatened the empire, Aurelian vigorously campaigned against barbarian incursions and attempted to consolidate the empire's borders. His efforts restored a measure of stability to the Roman world, laying the groundwork for future emperors to build upon his achievements.

Early Life and Rise to Power

Born in either Serdica or Sirmium in the province of Moesia (later Dacia Ripensis), Aurelian’s father was a colonus (tenant farmers who were tied to the land they cultivated, working under the authority of a landowner) serving a senator named Aurelius.

Of modest origins, Aurelian began his military career in the lower ranks of the Roman military, joining the equestrian order. Over time, he displayed exceptional skills and leadership, leading to several promotions. He eventually reached the rank of dux (military commander) and was given the responsibility of defending various Roman provinces against invasions.

During his time as dux, Aurelian successfully defended the provinces of Dalmatia, Moesia, and Pannonia from various threats. His military successes built his reputation and laid the groundwork for his future rise to power.

During the Crisis of the Third Century between 235-284 AD, more than 60 individuals declared themselves "emperor," with many having short and turbulent reigns. This turmoil created an opportunity for someone like Aurelian, who had demonstrated strong leadership and military prowess, to ascend to the position of Roman emperor.

During this chaotic period, Aurelian continued to prove his worth as a military leader, eventually capturing the attention of the current emperor, Gallienus. Aurelian was promoted to a high-ranking position within the imperial army and played a key role in repelling invasions and maintaining the stability of the Roman Empire.

In 268 AD, while besieging the city of Milan, where the usurper Aureolus had taken refuge, Emperor Gallienus was assassinated by his own officers as part of a conspiracy. The plot was led by the praetorian prefect, Aurelius Heraclianus, and the commanders Claudius Marcianus and Julius Martialis. After Gallienus' assassination, the conspirators proclaimed Claudius Gothicus, a highly respected military commander, as the new emperor.

Claudius Gothicus ruled for a short period until his death in 270 AD, likely due to the Plague of Cyprian. Following Claudius' passing, his brother, Quintillus, briefly claimed the throne but was quickly challenged by Aurelian, who had the support of the military. Aurelian was proclaimed emperor by his troops in Sirmium in 270 AD, and Quintillus, unable to rally sufficient support, committed suicide after a reign of only a few months.

As a result of his military achievements, the ongoing instability of the empire, and the support of his troops, Aurelian secured his position as the new Roman emperor. He would go on to face numerous challenges and adversaries during his reign, earning the title Restitutor Orbis ("Restorer of the World") for his efforts to reunify and strengthen the Roman Empire.

Reign as Emperor

Military Victories and Campaigns

Aurelian's military victories and campaigns brought the empire back from the brink of disintegration under the pressure of barbarian invasions and internal revolts.

Aurelian's successful military campaigns began with the reconquest of the breakaway Gallic Empire in the west. He defeated the forces of Emperor Tetricus I and subsequently re-established Roman control over Gaul, Britannia, and Hispania. In the east, Aurelian crushed the Palmyrene Empire, led by the ambitious Queen Zenobia, restoring both Aegyptus and the eastern provinces to the Roman Empire.

In addition to the successful campaigns against rebellious provinces, Aurelian also led the Roman army to victories against various barbarian tribes that threatened the empire's frontiers. He fought the Goths, Vandals, Juthungi, Sarmatians, and other invader forces, strengthening the defense of the Danube River boundary.

Internal Revolts and Challenges

In addition to the numerous external threats faced by the Roman Empire during Aurelian's reign, the emperor also had to contend with several internal challenges that threatened the stability of his rule. Throughout his five-year tenure as emperor, Aurelian faced multiple internal revolts and attempted coups d'état, which he had to suppress to maintain his authority and the integrity of the empire.

One of the most significant internal conflicts during Aurelian's reign was the Revolt of Felicissimus. Felicissimus, a senior public financial official, instigated a rebellion against Aurelian in 271 AD. The exact reasons for the revolt are not entirely clear, but it is believed that Felicissimus, who was responsible for overseeing the coin mint in Rome, may have been involved in a plot to manipulate the currency for personal gain. Alternatively, the revolt could have been a reaction to Aurelian's attempts to reform the currency system and address the economic instability plaguing the empire.

The Revolt of Felicissimus led to a battle between the Roman legions loyal to Aurelian and a faction of the Senate supporting Felicissimus. The conflict resulted in numerous casualties on both sides and caused significant damage to parts of Rome. However, Aurelian ultimately emerged victorious, quelling the rebellion and reasserting his control over the city and the empire.

Despite the risks posed by these internal revolts and the resources required to suppress them, Aurelian managed to maintain stability within the empire throughout his reign. His ability to effectively address both external and internal threats is a testament to his skills as a leader and military commander.

To commemorate his military and political successes, Aurelian ordered the construction of a new set of defensive walls around Rome, known as the Aurelian Walls. These walls, which were completed in 275 AD, not only provided enhanced security for the city, but also served as a symbol of the empire's revitalized strength and resilience under Aurelian's rule. The Aurelian Walls stood as a tangible reminder of the emperor's efforts to safeguard Rome and restore stability to the empire, despite the numerous challenges he faced during his reign.

Relations with Foreign Powers

One of Aurelian's major adversaries was Shapur I, the king of the Sasanid Empire, which emerged as a rival to the Parthian Empire. The Sasanid Empire eventually aimed to expand its territories, leading to conflicts with Rome.

Aurelian's predecessor, Valerian, was captured by Shapur I during the battle against the Sasanid Empire. This event marked the first time a Roman emperor was taken as a prisoner of war. Aurelian's predecessor, Valerian, was captured by Shapur I during the battle against the Sasanid Empire. This event marked the first time a Roman emperor was taken as a prisoner of war. Valerian's capture deeply affected the morale of the Roman population, particularly the legionaries, and further exacerbated the existing Third Century Crisis.

Economic and Social Reforms

As emperor, Aurelian implemented significant economic and social reforms to address the challenges faced by the Roman Empire during his reign.

Aurelian was known for increasing the distribution of free food in Rome, which greatly benefited the plebeians. This extension of the dole system exemplified his commitment to supporting the lower classes. Under his rule, each registered Roman citizen who applied received two pounds of bread daily, and these benefits were made hereditary.

In terms of economic policy, one of Aurelian's major reforms was an attempt to stabilize the debased silver coinage. The Roman Empire's currency had been deteriorating for over 40 years, and Aurelian aimed to restore its value. While his efforts met with limited success, they showcased his dedication to addressing Rome's fiscal issues.

He also took steps to tackle corruption within the empire. A severe and uncompromising administrator, Aurelian set an example for his government officials. He is believed to have levied heavier taxes on the elite to finance his reforms, which further emphasized his commitment to protecting the interests of the common people.

Aurelian's Assassination and Legacy

On 25 September 275 AD, the Roman Empire was once more thrown into turmoil when Emperor Aurelian was assassinated by members of his own military entourage. The tragic event occurred near the town of Caenophrurium, in Thrace, while Aurelian was preparing for a campaign against the Sassanid Persians.

The assassination plot involved the use of forged letters that implicated Aurelian in a conspiracy against high-ranking officers and senators. The exact details of the conspiracy remain unclear, but it is believed that discontent with Aurelian's strict disciplinary measures and desires for greater power among some individuals may have played a role.

Despite his tragic end, Aurelian's impact on the Roman Empire was significant. He successfully reunited the fractured empire, bringing the Gallic and Palmyrene breakaway provinces back under Roman control. Aurelian also achieved notable victories against external threats, such as the Juthungi and Alemannic invaders, whom he managed to repel from Italia.

In addition to his military successes, Aurelian enacted several important reforms. He established new defenses around Rome, including the construction of the Aurelian Walls, which made the city more secure from external threats. Aurelian also attempted to reform the Roman economy by introducing a new silver coin, the antoninianus, to help stabilize the empire's finances.

While Aurelian's reign was cut short by his untimely assassination, his legacy endured. The impact of his reforms and military victories reverberated through the Roman Empire for generations. His successful campaigns against the Gallic and Palmyrene Empires, as well as his decisive victories over various barbarian tribes, secured Rome's borders and brought a measure of stability to a fragmented empire.

Aurelian's economic and social reforms, including the distribution of free food to the plebeians and efforts to stabilize the currency, demonstrated his commitment to the welfare of his subjects. The construction of the Aurelian Walls in Rome stood as a tangible symbol of his dedication to the city's defense and the empire's resilience.

Aurelian's life, from his humble beginnings as the son of a colonus to his rise as a formidable military commander and emperor, encapsulated the tumultuous nature of the Crisis of the Third Century. His unwavering resolve, strategic brilliance, and tireless efforts to reunite and strengthen the Roman Empire in the face of both external threats and internal strife have solidified his place among the most remarkable rulers in Roman history.

Though his time on the imperial throne was brief, Aurelian's contributions to the stability and preservation of the Roman Empire were immeasurable, earning him a well-deserved place in the annals of history as a true restorer of Rome's glory.