Roman Theatre Costumes

Setting the Stage

Though inheriting much from its Greek predecessors, Roman theatre ultimately developed its own distinct style, introducing new storylines, staging innovations, and a unique approach to costumes and masks. Performance in ancient Rome was not solely a form of entertainment; it was often a medium through which social and political ideas were communicated.

Therefore, costumes in Roman theatre served both aesthetic and symbolic functions. They helped audiences identify characters' social status, temperament, and role type (comic vs. tragic), all while reflecting Roman values, religious beliefs and social norms.

The artistry behind Roman theatre costumes combined practical considerations (such as ease of movement) with thoughtful symbolism. Simple changes in clothing color, for example, could alter the perception of a character's social background or emotional traits. While many specific details of costume usage have been lost to time, evidence from surviving plays, ancient texts, artwork and archaeological fragments paint a picture of a vibrant, codified costume tradition.

The Historical Context of Roman Theatre

Roman theatre did not exist in a vacuum, but rather emerged from local practices such as Etruscan dancing and dramatic rituals, later fusing with Greek theatrical traditions. By the third century BC, Rome came into greater contact with Greek culture, especially during the aftermath of Roman expansion into Greek territories in southern Italy and the eastern Mediterranean.

Greek plays provided initial blueprints for Roman dramatists like Plautus and Terence, who heavily adapted - and at times borrowed wholesale - the comedic plots, stock characters and costumes from Greek New Comedy.

However, even as Roman dramatists imitated Greek stories, the costumes underwent transformations. Traditional Greek garments like the chiton and himation were replaced or modified with Roman equivalents, or the plays were "transposed" into a Greek setting that used stereotypically "Greek" attire known as palliata (from the Greek cloak, the pallium).

Thus, Roman theatre's early history is a story of selective appropriation and adaptation, using Greek costume elements while also reflecting quintessentially Roman ideas of status, virtue and decorum.

Greek Influences on Roman Costuming

In Greek theatre - especially in the comedic works of Menander - actors donned masks that signaled character archetypes, such as the braggart soldier or the foolish old man, while also wearing garments that served as markers of social identity. This carried over to Roman comedic genres called fabula palliata, so named because actors wore the pallium mentioned above (a large rectangular piece of cloth draped around the body).

For tragedies, Romans emulated the Greek preference for chitons (long, flowing robes) in their adapted forms, which emphasized grandeur and seriousness. Footwear, too, was influenced by Greek prototypes. For tragic roles, the elevated platform shoes or cothurni (also called buskins) were sometimes used to give actors a more imposing height on stage.

Over time, these Greek-inspired features became standard elements that Roman audiences immediately recognized as belonging to serious or comedic genres.

However, the Romans did not adopt Greek influences uncritically. They introduced the idea of fabula togata, in which comic plays were set in a Roman context rather than a Greek one. In these performances, costuming shifted away from Greek cloaks to the iconic Roman toga, the broad, semi-circular garment that symbolized Roman citizenship.

This subtle shift highlights how Roman costuming was never static, but rather fluidly adapted to the evolving tastes and sensibilities of the empire's theatre-goers.

Comedic Costumes: Fabula Palliata and Fabula Togata

As mentioned above, the Roman comedic tradition can be broadly divided into two categories: fabula palliata (Greek-cloak plays) and fabula togata (Roman-toga plays). These categories directly influenced how actors dressed on stage.

Fabula Palliata (Greek Dress)

• Greek Cloak (Pallium): Derived from the Greek himation, the pallium was a staple of this type of comedy. Draped over the body in a variety of ways, it often reached the knees or lower.


• Tunic (Tunic or Chiton Variant): Underneath the cloak, actors wore a simple tunic that could be belted or loose. The length and quality of the tunic often indicated a character's social standing.


• Masks: Comedic masks in fabula palliata typically followed the Greek New Comedy tradition, displaying exaggerated facial expressions - smiling or scowling - to denote the broad comedic roles.

Fabula Togata (Roman Dress)

• Toga: The quintessential symbol of Roman citizenship. Worn in comedic plots set in a Roman context, the toga was more cumbersome and required skillful draping to allow for movement.


• Tunic: Worn under the toga, often of modest length for comedic effect or easy motion.


• Masks: Masks in fabula togata were generally adapted from the Greek comedic form but featured designs more recognizable to Roman audiences, with modifications to represent stereotypical Roman figures like the Roman matron or the Roman youth.

In both forms of comedy, costume colors and accessories conveyed social rank. A wealthy or aristocratic character might wear a richly dyed cloak (often red or purple, which were costly dyes), while a poorer character might wear an undyed or plainly colored garment.

Tragic Costumes

In Roman tragedy, the costumes were designed to reflect a more solemn mood than those of comedic performances. Tragic plays often drew from mythological or historical narratives filled with intense emotions and high-stakes conflicts. Costuming therefore served to heighten the sense of grandeur and severity.

• Long Robes: Tragic costumes generally involved floor-length, draping garments (often adapted from the Greek chiton or peplos), meant to confer a regal and dignified appearance.


• High Heels/Cothurni (Buskins): Borrowed from the Greek tradition to give actors an imposing presence. This was especially relevant for characters of high status or legendary heroes.


• Elaborate Masks: Tragic masks were less overtly caricatured compared to comedic masks, but they still displayed pronounced expressions - wide-eyed looks of sorrow or stoic, noble facial structures - to signal to the audience the type of role being portrayed.


• Color Palette: Darker, richer colors like deep purples, dark blues and browns were more common in tragedy, indicating gravity and nobility. Occasionally, pure white might be used for characters or scenes referencing purity, divinity or a ghostly presence.

The combined effect of these elements - flowing robes, towering footwear, and dramatic masks - served to set tragic performances apart from comedic ones, visually cluing the audience into the more serious and often fatal narrative arcs.

The Role of Masks in Roman Theatre

Masks were integral to ancient theatre across both Greek and Roman contexts. In Rome, masks were crucial for a number of practical and artistic reasons:

• Character Differentiation: Ancient theatre companies were typically small, with the same actors playing multiple roles throughout a production. Masks allowed quick changes in character identity by swapping one persona for another, without the need for an entirely new actor.


• Exaggeration and Clarity: Large open mouths and bold expressions on masks helped project voices and emotions to audiences in vast amphitheaters. Roman audiences, seated far from the stage, benefited from these visual cues and increased their chances of hearing what was being spoken.


• Symbolic Archetypes: Masks visually represented the archetypal roles that dominated Roman comedy - like the "braggart soldier" (miles gloriosus), the "cunning slave," the "old man" (senex), or the "young lover." For tragedy, they often embodied mythic archetypes, divinities, or legendary kings and queens.


• Gender Portrayal: Due to the ban on women performing on stage, male actors portrayed female roles by wearing distinctively feminine masks and garments.

Though masks sometimes obscured facial nuance, Roman plays did not rely on subtle facial expressions, but rather on broad physicality and vocal projection. Masks, therefore, complemented the bold gestures and stylized movements common in Roman acting.

Color Symbolism and Its Impact

Roman society placed a strong emphasis on visual markers of status, morality, and identity. Color in clothing was among the most significant of these markers. In the theatre, color functioned both as a dramatic device and as a method of delineating social class:

• Purple: The color of royalty and high rank. In everyday life, wearing a toga with a purple stripe indicated senatorial or equestrian status. Onstage, a purple cloak or trim signified an individual of high birth or regal power (especially in tragedy).


• White: Connoted purity, youth, and sometimes the divine. A character in a pristine white garment might represent a deity, a priestess, or someone of moral fortitude.


• Red and Bright Hues: Frequently used to depict passion, aggression, or lower-moral-standing characters (in comedic roles, a bright red might hint at a cunning or amorous figure).


• Black or Dark Shades: Could represent mourning, villainy, or a tormented character. In tragic plays, black or dark navy signified grief or ominous foreboding.

These color conventions helped the audience follow the storyline effortlessly. Viewers could anticipate a character's rank or even personality the moment they stepped onto the stage, purely through the hue and quality of their costume.

Footwear: Practical and Symbolic Considerations

In the Roman world, footwear was both a practical necessity and a marker of status. Onstage, different types of shoes indicated everything from wealth to social class, or even emotional state:

• Calcei (Closed Shoes): Typical Roman footwear for everyday wear, often used by upper-class characters.


• Soleae (Sandals): Worn in domestic settings or by those of lower status, these open sandals might appear on comedic characters meant to be everyday men or slaves.


• Cothurni (Buskins): As mentioned earlier, these high-soled boots were a staple of tragedy, offering elevated height that suggested heroic or godlike status.

While comedic actors might choose more flexible footwear to accommodate quick movements and physical comedy, tragic actors often wore the cumbersome cothurni to slow their gait and add weight to their performances. The Romans understood that the way an actor moved was as important as the words he spoke. The audience's visual impression - facilitated by the height and gait derived from footwear - was integral to how they interpreted the character's nobility or comedic appeal.

Materials, Construction, and Ornamentation

Roman theatrical costumes were constructed using materials common to the textile production of the era. Linen and wool were the most prevalent. Silk, though known and sometimes imported from distant lands such as China, was exorbitantly expensive, and thus it appeared more often as an accent or trim if it was used at all.

Decorative elements might include embroidery, metallic threads or woven patterns, but these were generally reserved for characters of higher status or for special performances that celebrated religious or state festivals.

Since theatre costumes needed to be donned and removed quickly in the cramped spaces behind the stage, simplicity in construction was key. Garments were often pinned or belted in place rather than tailored with complex stitching, allowing for swift costume changes. Masks, too, were typically made of lightweight materials such as linen, cork or wood to reduce strain on the actors' necks and to allow easier vocal projection.

Stage Conventions and Costume Changes

Roman theatre, especially in comedic forms, was known for its dynamic pacing and quick transitions. While comedic plays rarely had elaborate sets, they frequently demanded rapid costume changes to accommodate plot twists, double identities, and disguise sequences.

For instance, a slave character might need to disguise himself as a wealthy aristocrat. A common practice was to layer a fine cloak over a simple tunic, or to switch masks. The comedic effect of a "costume swap" was often played out in front of the audience, highlighting the playful nature of Roman comedy.

Tragedy also employed costume changes, though less frequently. A tragic heroine might move from an initial garment symbolizing royalty to a tattered or blackened robe symbolizing her downfall or deep mourning. These shifts in costume reinforced the emotional trajectory of the plot.

Costume and Social Commentary

As well as for purely entertainment purposes, Roman theatre, like its Greek predecessor, was also a stage for political satire, commentary on societal norms, and moral exploration.

Costumes were an integral part of this commentary. By dressing a Roman senator in a particular hue or style, playwrights and actors could discreetly or overtly reference real-life political figures. The comedic trope of the bumbling old man in an ostentatious purple robe, for example, could be read as a jab at elite senators who paraded their wealth but lacked wisdom.

Additionally, the costuming of slaves - usually in short tunics, sometimes belted to allow freedom of movement - reinforced the notion that slaves were the "active," cunning and energetic force in many comedies. Their attire, distinct from their masters', mirrored a larger social reality: slaves were physically laborious, while their masters might be weighed down by more elaborate togas. Such visual cues helped the audience situate themselves in a play's critique or affirmation of social hierarchies.

Were There Women on the Roman Stage?

As mentioned earlier, one of the paradoxes in ancient Roman theatre is that, while female characters often played important roles, women themselves were largely barred from performing on the legitimate stages of Roman festivals. Actors in female roles wore distinct masks featuring feminine facial features, along with women's garments; long, draped robes and sometimes additional veils or head coverings.

On one hand, this practice perpetuated stereotypes about women's qualities and actions. On the other, it allowed male actors to adopt exaggerated feminine mannerisms for comedic or tragic effect, often reinforcing the moral or thematic points of the performance.

Though there may have been exceptions - such as mime or other less "respectable" theatrical forms where women did occasionally appear on stage - classical Roman drama was exclusively dominated by male performers.

Religious and Ceremonial Dimensions

Roman theatre was closely tied to religious festivals and to celebrations of victory or imperial events, and costumes frequently reflected these religious or ceremonial undertones. Actors wore special ceremonial garments or ornaments dedicated to the gods, sometimes culminating in processions or preludes before the main performance.

This fusion of religion, state, and theatre meant that costumes were not purely a matter of stagecraft but were also loaded with religious significance. Some accounts suggest that the presence of certain colored garments on stage could be interpreted as reverence or homage to a deity. Thus, costuming at major religious festivals had a deep cultural resonance beyond mere entertainment.

Practical Challenges in Costuming

Despite the grandeur of Roman theatre costumes, actors and costume designers faced practical challenges:

• 1. Heat and Weight: Multiple layers of wool, plus heavy masks, could make performances physically demanding in Rome's warm climate, especially in open-air theatres.


• 2. Quick Changes and Limited Space: As mentioned, the Roman stage typically had minimal backstage areas, necessitating swift costume alterations.


• 3. Reusability of Costumes: Costumes were often reused across plays and adapted to suit new roles. Garments might be re-dyed or repurposed to fit the context of different productions.

These constraints spurred a certain resourcefulness in Roman theatres. Skilled dressers backstage would often assist actors in removing or adding layers rapidly, sometimes within a matter of moments, to meet the demands of complex comedic plots.

The Decline of Traditional Roman Theatre and Costume Evolution

By the end of the Roman Empire, theatrical forms began to shift drastically. New styles like mime and pantomime rose in popularity. In mime, costumes were more minimal, and masks were often discarded in favor of more direct bodily and facial expressions. Pantomime, which placed emphasis on dance and movement to tell myths and stories, used more elaborate, often flamboyant, costumes to enchant the audience in a primarily visual manner. The older traditions of full masks and heavily codified garments for comedy and tragedy gradually fell out of fashion.

Moreover, the rise of Christianity affected public perception of theatre. Some early Christian leaders viewed theatrical performances (especially those involving pagan gods or ribald comedies) as morally questionable. Although theatre did not disappear entirely, these cultural and religious shifts contributed to the decline of traditional Roman drama and, by extension, its costume traditions.

Legacy and Historical Significance

While we no longer see Roman comedic or tragic plays performed in their original forms, the legacy of Roman theatre costume persists in multiple ways:

• Influence on Renaissance and Neoclassical Theatre: As scholars rediscovered classical texts, they gleaned inspiration from descriptions of ancient costumes, infusing their own stage productions with a sense of classical gravitas.


• Masquerade and Festival Traditions: The use of masks in Roman theatre, combined with local Italian carnival traditions, helped shape Europe's rich masquerade culture, most famously in Venice.


• Iconography in Art and Sculpture: Roman mosaics, reliefs and frescoes depicting theatrical scenes remain vital clues to how these costumes looked. These artistic artifacts continue to inform archaeologists and historians alike.

Epilogue: Tying Together the Threads of Roman Costume History

Costuming in ancient Roman theatre was more than mere decoration. It was a crucial language - one of color, shape, texture and symbolic design - that bridged the gap between actor and spectator. Whether in comedic or tragic modes, Roman theatrical costumes identified characters' social positions, underscored emotional or moral themes, and added to the spectacle of public performance. Influenced heavily by Greek tradition, yet distinctly Roman in its details, this costuming art form spoke volumes about the society that created it.

Performances in Rome were not just about watching a play; they were a communal experience, one that knitted together religious devotion, state politics and entertainment. Costumes were part of that grand tapestry, visually articulating everything from comedic parody to tragic downfall, from highborn aristocrats to cunning slaves, and from masculine heroes to feminine protagonists portrayed by men in masks.

In short, ancient Roman theatre costumes offer a window into the heart of Roman civilization; its structure, values and the artistic impulses that combined spectacle with social commentary.