Ancient Roman Footwear
While the Romans did not invent footwear, they were the first society to develop a varied selection, and to craft specialty shoes.
The Greeks and Egyptians developed simple sandals appropriate for their relatively warm climates. However, the Italian Peninsula's temperate yet varied climate, along with the ever-growing reach of the Empire, required the ancient Romans to develop a way to protect their feet.
Their advancements in footwear played an often overlooked part in their eventual expansion; healthy feet, combined with their comprehensive network of roads, enabled the Roman army to cover more ground than their predecessors or enemies.
Both civilians and soldiers wore sandals. The basic style and form of sandals were, in the main, fairly consistent across different social classes. Particular design concepts were used to add stylistic flourishes or functionality.
The Romans wore both open sandals, similar to modern-day flip-flops, and enclosed sandals, which were still breathable but provided increased protection and traction.
Roman Military Sandals
A key component of Roman soldiers' equipment was their footwear, called caligae. These were heavy-soled and durable sandals worn as the primary footwear. The Romans designed them to be mass-produced, comfortable, and functional.
Roman legions had to cover vast distances by foot to stage, mobilize, and fight as the Empire expanded. The soldiers' feet needed to be protected to ensure they could battle effectively after long marches.
Did you know...
The Roman emperor Caligula (formerly Gaius Caesar) received this nickname while on campaign with his father in Germania. As a baby and young boy he was often dressed in a mock legionary uniform, including the caligae sandals, much to the delight of the soldiers. The men soon began to refer to their new mascot as Caligula, or "little sandals".
Design and Composition
The caligae were open-toed sandals that enveloped the foot and ankle, with straps that covered the instep and lower leg. Soldiers wore metal shin guard armor on top of the laced part of their sandals for protection of the legs.
The soles were made of three layers of durable leather bound together with iron nails. While the bottom layer was rugged, the inner layer was soft.
This construction prevented blistering and trench foot while guarding the soldier from rough terrain. Foot integrity was critical for the army's ability to travel and fight.
Unlike the basic footwear of earlier civilizations, the ancient Romans cut theirs to account for the differences between the left and right feet. This customization added to their functionality and comfort.
Sutors, or shoemakers, were esteemed craftsmen who were financially successful throughout Rome. The armies often traveled with sutors, who could craft and repair shoes on the go to keep the military agile.
These artisans used a forma, a foot-shaped wooden block, to craft the shoes, and an iron block to turn and flatten the nails used to fashion the soles.
Archeologists unearthed excellently preserved footprints made by caligae at the Hippos-Sussita archaeological site near the Sea of Galilee. Researchers dated them to the 1st century AD. They were almost identical in design to shoeprints found at a separate archeological site in Britain, indicating the precision of Roman design and the skill of the sutors.
Function
As mentioned above, the Roman Empire's diverse topography forced soldiers to march across rugged terrain. Unlike civilian sandals, sutors studded the soles of military sandals with metal spikes. They provided extra traction for mountainous or uneven treks.
The spikes also had a combat application. A typical Roman legion marched ten men deep. As it advanced during battle, the spikes allowed soldiers to stomp their fallen foes. This ensured the enemy would not get up to continue the fight and attack the advancing Romans from behind.
The spikes also made a distinct sound as a legion, which consisted of more than 1,000 men, approached. The clacking acted as an early type of psychological warfare for approaching Roman armies.
Comfort
The sandals' open nature made them breathable. This functionality helped reduce skin irritation during long marches in hot weather.
Based on findings during a 2010 archeological excavation of 14 military graves at North Yorkshire in Britain, soldiers wore socks in cold weather climates. Archeologists discovered linen and wool fibers around the nails of preserved Roman sandals dating to the 3rd century AD.
Roman Civilian Sandals
Civilian shoes were generally made of softer leather and had thinner soles than their military counterparts.
Just as we would take our outdoor shoes off at the front door and put indoor slippers on, the Romans also wore different sandals inside and outside, so as not to get mud, dirt or animal faeces into their own, or their host's, home or villa.
The most basic sandal was a solea, which consisted of a simple hobnailed sole and thong that ran between the toes. Solea were the standard indoor shoe and usually consisted of leather or thick papyrus.
Carbatinae were crafted from a single piece of leather. They were soft and fastened with a single lace. Wealthy Romans paid for them to be custom shaped to their foot. The sandals had a strap across the heel and looping pieces across the instep, with a threaded thong used as a fastener.
Outdoor sandals completely covered the foot and fastened in front with straps. Enclosed shoes initially had curved toes, but later-era styles emphasized rounded toes.
Owning multiple pairs of shoes for different purposes was common, especially among the wealthy. Peros were rawhide boots designed for wet weather. Calcamen were formal sandals that extended up to the mid-calf. Winter shoes were usually cork-soled.
Roman senators usually wore a black leather shoe called a calceus senatorius, which featured four straps.
Roman women's sandal designs were comparable to men's shoes but usually used finer leather. Women wore caligae muliebres, which were unstudded boots, or calceoli, which were shorter half-boots.
Design and Customization
Civilians' shoes featured ornate designs relative to the wearers' social status. Researchers speculate that while the structure of footwear was static throughout the Republic and Imperial eras, styles evolved continually due to changing fashion trends and exposure to new cultures.
Enclosed shoes featured hole punches designed to create intricate patterns and flourishes. The insoles were stamped with designs, including animals and astrological symbols. Women often had intricately embroidered shoes. Emperors and the wealthy adorned their sandals with jewels and precious stones.
Shoes were typically the natural color of the leather, which came from cows or deer. Upper-class Romans paid to dye their shoes red, yellow, white, gold, and purple. Shoes and sandals were also coated with a mixture of tree bark and mineral salts to preserve them.
The link of footwear with class carried over into the theater. Many actors used specific shoe styles to indicate their character's class and role, telling the audience which characters deserved sympathy, derision, or praise.
