Ancient Roman Baths
The Romans loved the baths. Rather than just places to wash and get clean, Roman baths provided a venue to meet friends, exercise, and talk politics or business.
They were popular all over the Roman Empire, and varied from small, intimate settings to large architectural masterpieces which could accommodate many people. For example, the Baths of Caracalla in Rome could supposedly accommodate up to 1,600 people at a time spread around its many rooms and outdoor spaces, according to the Roman historian Olympiodorus of Thebes.
Some of these magnificent baths still stand to this day, albeit in not quite the same condition as they once were, such as the Baths of Caracalla in Rome and the baths in the appropriately named town of Bath in England.
Some very wealthy Romans had their own small-scale private baths in their houses and villas, but even these individuals still frequently attended a public bath for the social aspect mentioned earlier, not to mention the business and political opportunities that could be discussed with others attending.
Who Went to the Baths?
Many people think of the baths as the equivalent of some kind of modern-day fitness club where only the rich can afford and are allowed to go. While it is true that rich and powerful Roman citizens did frequent the baths, they were by no means an exclusive club. Entrance fees were generally low enough to be afforded by those citizens who were considered quite poor.
Sometimes, aspiring political figures, or even the emperor himself, would pay for the public to attend for free in order to win their support, in the same way as they did with gladiator games and other festivities.
Were Roman Women Allowed to Visit the Baths?
Roman women were allowed to visit the baths also, but attitudes and rules varied over the centuries.
In the earlier days of the Roman Republic, there was a strict no-mixing policy. Women were allowed to bathe either at a different time of the day to men, or, if it was a particularly large bath house, they had their own separate area.
However, in later times during the Imperial Period, mixed bathing had begun to be much more accepted and was quite common, as evidenced in works by famous Roman writers such as Juvenal, Martial and Pliny the Elder. Even so, women concerned about their reputation tended to avoid visiting the baths when men were present, lest their reputation wrongly (or rightly) come into question.
There is no doubt that bathing naked with the opposite sex was viewed by many influential writers of the day as immoral and wrong. They viewed it as encouraging temptation and of corrupting morals; a charge not without merit, as in all of the baths in all of the empire there probably was at least some... fraternising... going on in secret at the baths between men and women that were not married.
For many living in the later Roman empire, mixed bathing and the vice it encouraged only highlighted the decline from the lofty and mighty ideals and values of the once-powerful empire.
When Were Public Baths Open?
Times could very, and privately-owned bath houses could obviously open whenever they wanted to, but larger public baths were usually open at a similar time. The Roman working day often began quite early in the morning, and finished by mid-afternoon.
This meant that the best time to visit the baths was for a few hours in late afternoon, before then returning home in the evening for a nice meal. As such, men visited the baths during this time, while women were allowed to visit in the morning.
As mentioned above, during the Imperial Period this strict segregation of men and women started to become more relaxed, although there are examples of various Roman emperors trying to ban mixed bathing, which goes to show that these attempts were not particularly successful.
How Were Roman Baths Heated?
Some baths made use of the local environment, such as the one in Bath, England which took advantage of the natural hot springs in the area to pipe already warm water.
Most, however, relied upon clever design and slave labor. Known as a hypocaust (Latin: hypocaustum), the baths were built on foundations of small tile pillars, which meant there were large spaces underneath the floor. Slaves would continuously stoke fires that would make the air in this space extremely hot, and heat the surface above, which was the floor of the bathing area that contained the water.
This hot floor would heat the water, and as cold water is heavier that hot water, it allowed the water to be maintained at the required temperature as cooler water sank and was heated in a continual cycle.
For more information on the hypocaust heating system, please click here.
The Various Rooms and Facilities of the Roman Baths
While many Roman baths featured a large area for bathing, a typical Roman bath was far from simply one large pool. A visit to the baths more often than not involved a progression through a number of different areas, usually in the same sequence.
Depending on their size, not all public baths would have all of these features, but a typical day at a large public bath (thermae) would have involved something like the below:
Entrance
First was actually entering the building. A lot of large public baths had separate entrances for men, women and slaves.
Note: While slaves were integral to both the functioning of the bath houses and for attending their masters, there is some debate over whether slaves themselves could make use of the facilities when they weren’t working. There is anecdotal evidence, particularly in literature at the time, suggesting that slaves were able to visit the baths, even if it was only at off-peak times.
For more on this, see the discussion at history.stackexhange.com.
Atrium
Upon entering, large public bath houses normally had an atrium or large open area. This is similar to the entrance area of a modern-day fitness center, in that it served as a place to wait for friends or acquaintances who were either coming or just finishing in the baths.
If you’ve ever stood in the entrance area of a gym waiting impatiently for your friend to arrive who is running late, it’s likely that many Romans went through the same experience in the atrium!.
This atrium area could also incorporate small rooms, a latrine, and an area for advertisements such as upcoming events or important announcements.
It was here that visitors paid their entrance fee to enter the bath complex.
Apodyterium
Next was the apodyterium, which was the changing area. Again, the similarities with a modern-day gym or leisure center are striking.
This room would feature a large open area, possibly with tables, benches or other surfaces to use while a person got undressed, and then small niches where they could store their clothes, just as we would put ours in an individual locker today.
However, there was no putting a coin in a locker and wearing a little key on your wrist like we do. These were just open spaces, which meant that it was easy for anyone to steal someone’s belongings.
To combat this, slaves were present to guard against theft. For extremely wealthy individuals, who may have been leaving expensive clothing or items such as gold jewelry behind, they would have their own slaves guarding their belongings rather than rely on the ones provided by the bath house. These slaves would also have assisted their master with dressing and undressing.
Natatio
Some large baths had an outdoor pool (natatio) which bathers sometimes entered first. A dip in the natatio was, for many, the first opportunity to relax in water after a hard day of toil.
Its large size meant there were likely to be many people in there, which provided an ideal opportunity to chat to friends or speak about politics or business.
Exercise
For some, a visit to the baths was not just about bathing; they also went to exercise. Although this was a time before calorie intake, metabolism and the like was understood, the Romans could clearly observe that an active person (who also didn’t eat too much) was less likely to become fat.
But just as it was for activity, exercise at the baths probably had more to do with fun and enjoyment. The Romans may not have known anything about endorphins, but they would still have felt the effect that exercise has on mood and mental well-being.
A palaestra was an outdoor space where people could exercise. Exercises might include the lifting of weights or catching of heavy balls (similar to medicine balls), wrestling or running and jumping.
Before exercising, the Romans would oil their bodies with olive oil, or rather, a slave would do it for them. Again, this was either a slave that belonged to the bath house itself, or wealthy patrons would bring their own slaves for this task.
After exercise this oil, along with the sweat and dirt, would be scraped off the skin using a strigil, which is a curved, blunt hook-like implement which could be run along the skin. This task was performed either outside, or in dedicated rooms within the baths.
While bathing often took place naked, the Romans normally wore clothing around their waists while exercising. It was highly unusual for women to take part in the exercise area.
This recreation time did not have to be that strenuous though. There have been lots of artifacts such as dice and board game counters found during archaeological digs at the ruins of Roman baths, which show that the Romans also enjoyed playing board games or gambling with dice at the baths.
Tepidarium
Aside from spending time in the natatio outdoor pool, the first stage of the bathing process was a visit to the tepidarium. Just as we use the word 'tepid' today meaning not really hot or cold, this room contained warm water (in some cases it only contained warm air such as in the baths at Pompeii or the Baths of Hippias).
As well as being quite a pleasant experience to be submerged in warm water or sit in a warm room, it helped to prepare the body for the next stage, which was a visit to the caldarium (see below), as going straight into this hot water from either the outdoor natatio or the outside air would not have been very nice. Some bathers also liked to re-enter the tepidarium after the caldarium in order to cool down a bit!
Sometimes, the oiling of the body took place in the tepidarium room, or the application of an additional covering of oil.
Caldarium
This was the hot room. Often located closest to the furnace, the water was heated to a high temperature through the hypocaust flooring system talked about towards the top of this page.
As well as the hot water, the air in the room was also hot, and this room was ideal for opening up the pores of the skin, after which more oil and sweat could be scraped away from the skin using the strigil.
Many caldariums also incorporated a labrum, which was a cool-water fountain that bathers could use to splash on their face and neck to cool them down if they were getting a little too hot in there!
Frigidarium
As the name implies, this was a cool room featuring a cold water plunge pool to take a (often short) dip in. It closed the pores of the skin, and was extremely refreshing after the heat of the caldarium. As mentioned above, some bathers like to go back down the process and re-visit the tepidarium after the caldarium to cool down more gently before entering the frigidarium. Others just went straight in.
Other Rooms and Facilities
The above are the most common rooms found in a typical large Roman public bath. Although they shared many similarities, no two were identical across the empire. Each tried to best accommodate the demands of its local users, or even just offer something a little bit unique and different.
A laconicum was a room that was even hotter than a caldarium. There was no water; it was just a very hot room used for sweating, just like we would sit in a sauna today. It was supposedly introduced to Rome by the general and architect Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa.
As well as being able to play games and have conversations with friends and associates, some baths also had libraries and rooms for reading. Some baths also had well-maintained garden areas for visitors to take a stroll around.
There were also vendors present from which to buy refreshments, as all of that exercise and bathing in a hot bath are bound to make anyone thirsty and hungry.
How Did Water Get to the Roman Baths?
The Romans built vast networks of aqueducts to transport water from lakes and rivers many miles away, right into the heart of their towns and cities.
Despite the costs, entrance fees were always kept low for public baths, which serves to highlight that they were seen as an essential part of public life and citizen happiness, rather than a money-making luxury.
The private baths in the villas of the wealthy drew water from the supply provided by the aqueducts, but they had to pay money to the state for this privilege.
Conclusion
There is no denying that the baths provided much-needed respite from hectic daily life.
In places such as Rome and other towns and cities throughout the Mediterranean and north African region of the Roman Empire at its height, during the summer they would have been hot, dry, dusty places that would make people feel sweaty and grimey.
The baths provided a place to get clean, exercise and relax. Plus, although the water wasn’t changed that frequently, no doubt helped to improve public health overall. They also served as a much-loved social space.
That is, much-loved by most people. Not everyone loved the baths. The Roman philosopher Seneca happened to live above a Roman bath house at one time. Needless to say, he was not impressed with having it so close. For a philosopher who needs to think quietly, it was far from ideal! In a letter to Lucilius (number 56), he writes:
Beshrew me if I think anything more requisite than silence for a man who secludes himself in order to study! Imagine what a variety of noises reverberates about my ears! I have lodgings right over a bathing establishment. So picture to yourself the assortment of sounds, which are strong enough to make me hate my very powers of hearing! When your strenuous gentleman, for example, is exercising himself by flourishing leaden weights; when he is working hard, or else pretends to be working hard, I can hear him grunt; and whenever he releases his imprisoned breath, I can hear him panting in wheezy and high-pitched tones.
Or perhaps I notice some lazy fellow, content with a cheap rubdown, and hear the crack of the pummelling hand on his shoulder, varying in sound according as the hand is laid on flat or hollow. Then, perhaps, a professional (sports commentator) comes along, shouting out the score; that is the finishing touch.
Add to this the arresting of an occasional roisterer or pickpocket, the racket of the man who always likes to hear his own voice in the bathroom, or the enthusiast who plunges into the swimming-tank with unconscionable noise and splashing. Besides all those whose voices, if nothing else, are good, imagine the hair-plucker with his penetrating, shrill voice, – for purposes of advertisement, – continually giving it vent and never holding his tongue except when he is plucking the armpits and making his victim yell instead. Then the cake seller with his varied cries, the sausageman, the confectioner, and all the vendors of food hawking their wares, each with his own distinctive intonation.
Others, particularly as the Roman Empire began to weaken, saw the baths as a place of vice and corruption, magnets for thieves, prostitutes and an immoral mixing of the sexes wearing little or no clothing.
They did have a point in some regards. The baths did become ideal places for prostitutes to peddle their wares, if not in the baths themselves then just outside, with many men tempted into this additional method of recreation after a visit to the baths. Items did also go missing from the changing areas, as there is evidence that some of the slaves tasked with guarding possessions could not always be trusted, which is no doubt why the wealthy patrons were so keen to bring their own slaves along to guard their items while they bathed.
Despite these feelings by some, there is no doubting that joy and benefits that the baths brought to the overwhelming majority of the Roman people down the centuries, in terms of cleanliness and physical and mental health. They provided a magnificent venue that offered a respite from the heat and grind of everyday life, and was generally affordable by all but the poorest members of society.
A place to relax, get fit and socialise, the essence of the Roman baths has changed little in the two millennia since, and provides a strong comparison with our present-day love of fitness and leisure centers.
Related Page:
Roman Bathtubs – Roman bath tubs are deep baths which allow you to soak and relax. Deeper and wider than a regular bath tub, they also incorporate elaborate faucets and try to recreate the relaxation and bodily refreshment that a visit to the Roman baths would provide, right in the comfort of your own home.
