Garum (Fish Sauce) in Ancient Rome
Garum was an extremely popular condiment whose use spanned the length of the Roman Empire. The fish-based sauce was a staple of ancient Roman cuisine. Recipe collections dating back to ancient times reveal it was considered a necessary base for meals containing everything from veal to porridge.
What Was Garum?
Garum was a widely consumed sauce made from fermented fish. The Ancient Romans used it as a flavoring and base in many meals. It was also considered a medicine, a beverage and a table condiment. Similar to cooking oil and wine in kitchens today, fish sauce was used by everyone in society. Its taste, use and price varied widely based on economic status.
The earliest mention of garum in Roman literature dates back to the fourth century BC. However, archeologists have unearthed remnants of factories from even earlier. Shipwrecks containing packaged sauce, and food disposal sites, confirm the product reached every corner of the Roman Empire.
What Was Garum Made From?
According to Pliny the Elder, garum consisted of "...the guts of fish and the other parts that would otherwise be considered refuse." Recipes for the sauce undoubtedly varied by region and era, so we cannot be sure of its exact composition. Analysis from multiple excavation sites, particularly a factory in Pompeii, reveal that tuna, eel, anchovies and mackerel were the most common bases used to manufacture the sauce.
Eel, prawns, fish eggs and mollusks were also used depending on what was available in the waters near the production site. Spices were used in fermentation. The resulting paste was then blended with water, vinegar, oil, wine or honey.
Manufacturing Process
Garum was made by fermentation using salt and seawater at factories, known as cetariae, throughout Rome. These facilities were located at the outskirts of the town because of the strong odor produced during the manufacturing process.
There is some debate over whether makers used entire fish or a blend of chopped-up and unwanted pieces. In reality it was probably both; the composition of the fish likely influenced the purity and, ultimately, the price.
Once prepped, the fish was placed into a single layer inside a stone vat or large clay pot. The containers were coated with a substance called opus signinum, which was an extremely effective sealant. It was then covered with spices or flavorings. Finally, a layer of salt was placed on top.
The three alternating layers were repeated until the container was full. It was then placed in the sun for one week to ferment. The fish broke down and mingled with the spices. The salt kept the fish from rotting and putrefying.
The makers would then begin a 20-day stirring and blending process. By this point, the concoction was pungent and almost intolerable. Once the blending process was complete, the resulting paste would be strained using baskets.
The filtered liquid was later blended with other compounds or packaged pure and sold as fish sauce. The remnants were reserved for use in a variety of other culinary pastes and sauces.
Garum was made with a significantly lower salt content than modern fish sauces. As a result, it was highly nutritious. The process preserved the fish's high protein content, making it a valuable component of the Roman diet.
Manufacturers used longer fermentation processes, varying salt concentrations and unique ingredients to create distinct garum of varying quality. Everyone from soldiers to the wealthy consumed garum.
Based on factory ruins, archeologists estimate a typical garum manufacturer employed about 50 Romans. The work was difficult and undesirable because of the rotten stench produced during the fermentation process. Most sites consisted of a covered area where the fish was stored and prepped. The vats were usually outdoors and sometimes carved into stone.
Taste and Smell
Ancient garum had a full-bodied and rich umami flavor, making it a savory and complex ingredient. The taste was described as strong and lingering. Chefs would use different blends, often made with honey or wine, to emphasize sweetness or tanginess.
The raw product had a powerful odor. The finished product was bold yet aromatic. The appealing scent resulted from its blend of additives. High-quality garum was even sometimes positively compared to perfume.
Not Everyone Loved Garum
The disparate manufacture and far reach of garum are a testament to the sauce's popularity. However, that love was not universal. Seneca famously stated, seemingly in response to Pliny the Elder, "It's the overpriced guts of rotten fish! Don't you realize it burns up the stomach with its salted putrefaction?"
Storage and Transportation
While it was at first an artisanal product made for the wealthy, often at their villas, garum's booming popularity made mass production necessary. Eventually, it was manufactured as far east as modern-day Portugal and as far south as North Africa. The finished product was stored in clay containers called amphorae.
Naturally, manufacturing plants for the sauce were most common in port cities and areas with easy access to fish and other sea life. As the empire grew and demand rose, sites on the Mediterranean Sea were littered with production facilities.
Once packaged, garum was usually shipped to centers of wealth and power throughout the Empire. From there, it traveled through Rome's vast network of roads. Remnants of Garum amphorae are found as far as modern-day western Europe. Garum even made it to Hadrian's Wall in northern Brittania.
We have one surprising source of proof for garum's far reach. Archaeologists have found fish tapeworms at the distant reaches of the Roman Empire, far from anywhere fish would be an expected part of one's diet. Fish used in the production of garum were sometimes loaded with the bacteria responsible for tapeworms because the garum was fermented, not cooked.
Class and Price
Garum's adaptability led to various tiers of the product. Recipes and styles varied by province and region of the empire. The Romans tailored the production process to the resources they had at hand. The quality and distinct flavors became a source of pride for the respective regions of ancient Rome.
Much like wine today, prices varied widely. The masses could obtain low-cost garum for daily consumption and cooking. High-end products, blended with richer wine or other ingredients, could sell for the present-day equivalent of $500.
Generally, concentration dictated price. Thinner and less odiferous garum was considered high-grade. These products were only available to the wealthiest, and would usually be an essential ingredient found in nearly every Roman culina kitchen in the Empire.
The army and average citizens had access to weaker and more pungent forms.
Medicinal Uses
Ancient Romans valued garum as a medicine because of its high protein content. Physicians believed it effectively raised the appetites of patients recovering from injury and illness.
Pliny the Elder even wrote about garum as both a treatment for dog bites and a cure for dysentery. It was also prescribed as an earache treatment.
Interestingly, eating snails marinated in garum was considered a preventative treatment for stomach problems, almost like a probiotic.
The Downfall of Garum
How could such a ubiquitous and well-loved compound seemingly vanish? As with many aspects of Roman life, finances played a part. Salt was always plentiful and cheap in the Roman Empire. During the decline and fall of the Roman Empire, high taxes on salt were introduced, making garum production economically unsustainable for many producers.
Secondly, as the Empire fell and chaos spread, coastal cities could not count on the government for protection. The frequent attacks and cruelty of pirates decimated ports, crippling the sites where the majority of Rome's fish sauce was produced.
Fermented fish sauce essentially went extinct. It was even rare to find the condiment in modern-day Italy until recently. But now, the ongoing culinary revolution and search for novel savory flavors has led to contemporary twists on garum.
Modern Use
Today, fish sauces are most closely associated with Eastern cultures. A walk down the international food aisle of your grocery store reveals Vietnamese, Thai and Japanese takes on the ancient product. The widely embraced umami flavors of Southeast Asian cuisine come from their respective sauces.
Even non-seafood condiments, like soy sauce and Worcestershire sauce, trace their origins to garum. These products provide a salty and savory flavor enhancer that the world has chased for nearly 2,000 years.
Modern takes on garum sold in stores are usually made from blends of anchovy paste. Ambitious home cooks can even find recipes and guides for making their own fish sauce for use as a condiment or to add to other recipes.
