Cato the Elder (234 - 149 BC)
Introduction and Early Life
Marcus Porcius Cato, also known as Cato the Elder (and sometimes called ‘the Censor’), was one of the most prominent figures in ancient Rome. An accomplished soldier, politician and statesman, his contributions to the Roman world - even without his published works - are immense.
Born in 234 BC in the municipal town of Tusculum, Cato came from a plebeian family with a history of military service, as his father had earned a reputation as a brave soldier. His great-grandfather had even received a reward from the state for having five horses killed under him in battle.
The Patrician Torlonia bust, believed by some to represent Cato the Elder
Despite his plebeian roots, Cato was able to rise to prominence and establish himself as a respected figure in Roman society. As a young man, he came under the guidance of Lucius Valerius Flaccus, an influential Roman statesman who would later become Cato's political ally and mentor.
Cato's personal life was marked by his devotion to family and adherence to Roman virtues. He was married twice, first to Licinia and later to Salonia. Throughout his life, Cato maintained a reputation for strict morality and discipline, both in his private life and in his various public offices.
As a novus homo, or "new man" in the Roman political sphere, Cato truly embodied the spirit of self-made success. His unwavering dedication to Roman values and principles, coupled with his natural intelligence and political acumen, allowed him to ascend the ranks of Roman society and make a lasting impact on Roman history.
Cato's Military Career
Cato the Elder's military career began during the Second Punic War, where he bravely served in the Roman army. As a Roman soldier, he participated in numerous key battles, including the disastrous Battle of Cannae in 216 BC. In this confrontation, Rome faced the Carthaginian forces led by the formidable general, Hannibal. Cato's extraordinary courage and strategic skills were recognized, leading to his steady rise through the ranks.
Having attained the position of military tribune, Cato continued to demonstrate exemplary leadership. His military service extended beyond the Second Punic War, as he was also involved in the later stages of the Third Punic War.
On a different front, Cato played a crucial role during the war against Antiochus III, the King of the Seleucid Empire. The Roman forces confronted Antiochus at the Battle of Thermopylae in 191 BC. Cato's prowess and experience significantly contributed to the victory over the Seleucid Empire, further cementing his reputation as a seasoned and skilled military leader.
Throughout his entire military tenure, Cato actively participated in a range of battles and campaigns, consistently showcasing competence and dedication. His fearless spirit, together with his keen understanding of military strategy, made him an invaluable asset to the Roman Republic.
Political Journey and Offices Held
Cato's political ascent began when he was appointed as a Quaestor, responsible for overseeing the treasury and finances of the Roman Republic. Demonstrating impressive administrative skills and integrity, Cato earned the respect of the Senate and further advanced his career within the Roman political system.
After his term as Quaestor, Cato pursued the cursus honorum, a series of political offices held by aspiring Roman statesmen. He was elected as a plebeian Aedile, a magistrate responsible for maintaining public buildings and organizing public events. As an Aedile, Cato stayed true to his conservative values and made a notable impact on the administrative aspects of the Republic.
Cato's next step in his political journey took him to the office of Praetor, another prestigious position within the Roman political system. As a Praetor, Cato played a vital role in overseeing the rule of law, ensuring justice, and presiding over the courts. His time as Praetor further solidified his reputation as a firm and fair statesman.
In 195 BC, Cato reached the pinnacle of his political career by achieving the Consulship alongside his co-Consul, Lucius Valerius Flaccus. As a Consul, Cato demonstrated his military prowess and leadership abilities by successfully campaigning against the Spanish tribes.
Perhaps one of Cato's most well-known titles was that of Censor, an influential office responsible for maintaining the moral fabric of Roman society. As a Censor, Cato championed conservative values, opposed Hellenization, and pursued policies aimed at preserving Roman traditions.
Throughout his political career, Cato the Elder remained steadfast in his conservative beliefs, advocating for simplicity in public and private life. He was a prominent figure in the Roman Senate, ensuring his voice was heard on matters he deemed crucial to the well-being of the Republic.
Cato's Verdicts and Laws
As a Censor, Cato implemented various verdicts and laws throughout his career, and opposed certain propositions such as the repeal of the Lex Oppia. The Lex Oppia, or Oppian Law, enacted in 215 BC, was initially a wartime measure that aimed to limit women's display of wealth and extravagance in Rome. The law restricted women's access to gold, silver, and expensive garments, attributing it to the need to raise financial resources for the ongoing war.
Cato was a staunch supporter of traditional Roman values, which led him to defend the Lex Oppia when it was proposed for repeal in 195 BC. He argued that women's modesty and simplicity defined the foundation of Roman culture, and repealing the law would negatively impact society.
Cato's conservative views also drove him toward initiatives that benefited the community. He advocated for the construction and maintenance of public works such as roads, aqueducts, and public buildings. These projects not only provided employment opportunities for the citizens, but also contributed to the improvement of infrastructure and overall quality of life in Rome.
Cato's role as a Censor enabled him to maintain traditional Roman values and social order by regulating the conduct and affairs of public officials, as well as controlling the influx of Greek influence on Roman culture. Cato believed that the preservation of traditional Roman morals and values was of paramount importance in maintaining a functioning and prosperous society.
Cato and the Roman Senate
Cato's steadfast values and strong work ethic won him respect within the Roman Senate. As a Senator, he often opposed the philhellenic values shared by the Scipio family. This led to disagreements and tensions within the Senate, as Cato's principles often conflicted with other politicians' more liberal and progressive ideas.
Despite these conflicts, Cato's reputation as a knowledgeable and experienced statesman grew. He contributed significantly to the Roman Republic's military and political affairs, instilling integrity in the Senate. His insistence on upholding traditional Roman values helped shape the politics of his time and had a lasting impact on the trajectory of the Roman Republic.
As Cato continued to serve in the Senate, his persistent advocacy for preserving the Roman identity and resisting Hellenic influences further solidified his status as a staunch Roman traditionalist. This unwavering commitment to tradition helped preserve the core principles of the Roman Republic and contributed to Cato's lasting legacy in Roman history.
Influence on Roman Morality and Customs
In his role as Censor, Cato focused on preserving the mos majorum, or ancestral customs, by imposing strict guidelines and implementing measures that discouraged luxury. These policies were aimed at combating what he saw as the negative effects of Greek influence on Roman society and culture. He passed laws that taxed luxury items and revised the list of persons eligible for the Senate, which further emphasized the importance he placed on traditional Roman values and customs.
Cato also played a leading role in shaping Latin literature and promoting the Latin language as an instrument of Roman culture. As a writer and an orator, he was one of the pioneers in Roman history to write in Latin, and his work served as a model for future generations.
During his lifetime, Cato's dedication to promoting traditional customs and morality left a significant mark on the lives of the Roman people. His insistence on frugality, discipline, and adherence to ancestral customs helped establish the moral compass by which future generations of Romans would live and serve their society, including emperors such as Augustus and his morality laws over a century later.
Cato's unwavering stance on Rome's conservative values left a lasting influence on Roman culture, shaping its evolution and development for centuries to come.
Agricultural Works and Ventures
Cato the Elder, the prominent Roman statesman and soldier, was also - perhaps surprisingly - deeply interested in agriculture and farming practices. He believed in a strong, self-sustainable agricultural system for the Roman Republic, and maintained a close connection with rural life throughout his career.
Cato's interest in agriculture led to the creation of his famous work, De Agri Cultura, also known as 'On Farming' or 'On Agriculture'. De Agri Cultura is the oldest surviving work of Latin prose, and it offered practical advice on various aspects of Roman agricultural practices.
The treatise mainly focuses on the cultivation of grapevines and olives, as well as the grazing of livestock. It also includes topics such as plant care, soil management, and the use of slaves in farming operations.
Cato's own life experiences as a landholder further broadened his understanding of agriculture. After the death of his father, he inherited a small property in the Sabine territory, far from his native town. Here, he spent most of his childhood overseeing the operations of the farm. He gained a hands-on understanding of agricultural business and rural economy, which significantly influenced his later work, De Agri Cultura.
Some of Cato's agrarian ventures included the management of his vineyards and olive groves, which he turned into profitable operations. He was a firm believer in sustainable farming practices, avoiding any unnecessary waste, and making full use of the available resources.
Involvement in Rome's Economy
Cato’s early years spent overseeing farm operations and learning about rural economy gave him an experience which laid the foundation for his later involvement in shaping Rome's economic policies.
His conservative and practical approach to managing resources often clashed with the more luxurious lifestyle favored by Rome's elite. Cato was particularly outspoken against usury, a practice in which moneylenders charged exorbitant interest rates on loans. In his political career, he consistently advocated for strict regulation of usurers in order to protect Rome's citizens and economy.
Cato was also concerned about Rome's reliance on imported goods and resources, particularly from Greece. He believed that this dependence weakened Rome's self-sufficiency and made it vulnerable to external influence. As a result, he promoted local industries and encouraged Romans to produce their own goods, thereby strengthening the domestic economy.
In addition to his advocacy for local production and strict regulation of usury, Cato also had a direct hand in managing Rome's financial affairs. As a Censor, he was responsible for overseeing the collection and distribution of public funds, which included tax revenues and proceeds from the state's gold and silver mines in Italy. Cato's strict monitoring of spending and his insistence on financial integrity contributed to the well-being of Rome's coffers during his time in office.
Cato's Contributions to Literature
As an accomplished orator, Cato delivered numerous speeches throughout his political career. Famous for his eloquence, he often referred to the examples of his ancestors and historical events. Many of Cato's speeches were noted by historians such as Livy and Plutarch, albeit mostly in fragments. These speeches are valuable in researching the rhetoric form and political content of early Roman oratory.
Cato's friendship with Lucius Valerius Flaccus led him to develop an interest in Latin literature. Flaccus, a Senator and contemporary of Cato, was known for his literary learning and significantly contributed to the preservation of historical annals. Inspired by Flaccus, Cato began to write historical and instructional works entirely in Latin.
As an historian, Cato's most prominent work was the Origines. Spanning seven volumes, this historical account chronicled the early years of Rome and its neighbors, detailing the foundation of various Italian cities and offering insights into the lives of their inhabitants. The 'Origines' defense of Latin culture resonated with Cato's political beliefs, making it the first Roman historical work written in Latin rather than Greek.
In addition to his speeches and historical accounts, Cato authored various other Latin works. These included texts on agriculture, military affairs, and moral philosophy. His diverse literary contributions helped establish Latin as a legitimate language for various forms of literature in ancient Rome.
The Roman Republic during Cato's Time
During Cato the Elder's time, the Roman Republic was experiencing significant expansion and facing various military and political challenges. Rome faced ongoing threats from Carthage, a powerful city-state in North Africa, and in contrast, the Republic aimed to expand its influence in regions like Spain, Sardinia, and Numidia.
In Africa, Rome's primary objective was to prevent Carthage from rising again and threatening the Republic. Cato the Elder was particularly vocal about this issue, with his belief in the famous phrase "Carthago delenda est," meaning "Carthage must be destroyed." He saw the potential resurgence of Carthage as a significant danger to the Roman Republic, leading to multiple clashes and ultimately the Third Punic War, which resulted in Rome's eventual destruction of Carthage.
Simultaneously, the Roman Republic was also expanding its presence in other regions. Spain saw increasing Roman influence as Rome sought to secure its control over the strategically valuable land and resources found in the Iberian Peninsula. Rome's efforts in Spain brought about several conflicts that marked this period.
Also, during Cato's time, Rome faced challenges relating to its eastern Mediterranean possessions, particularly Sardinia. The island of Sardinia was subject to political and military conflicts, with Rome struggling to assert authority over the region. Despite these challenges, Rome continued to establish its dominance in the wider Mediterranean.
Another relevant area during this period was Numidia, located in present-day Algeria. Numidia was an important kingdom, and Rome sought to strengthen its relationship with the Numidian king to maintain strategic partnerships in Africa. This alliance played a key role in the Roman Republic's efforts against Carthage, as Numidia contributed to Rome's military campaigns.
Lastly, Campania, a wealthy region in southern Italy, was also significant during Cato's time. Campania saw its own internal struggles between various cities and factions, and Rome's involvement in the region was crucial in asserting its power and maintaining stability in Italy.
Cato the Elder's Legacy and Influence
Though probably best known for his zeal to destroy Carthage and bring on the Third Punic War with the words "Carthago delende est," to remember Cato for this alone is a terrible mistake. He produced many works and was the first historian to write a history of Rome in Latin. Unfortunately a great deal of Cato's literature has been lost to history, but that which remains is an invaluable resource.
A key infrastructure project overseen by Cato during his time as Censor was the construction of the Basilica Porcia, a public building that served as a space for legal proceedings. This initiative demonstrated Cato's commitment to providing all citizens with accessible venues for justice.
Cato's conservative beliefs extended beyond politics and governance. Through his writings, such as De Agri Cultura, he shared his emphasis on simple and resourceful living. He also made contributions to the field of medicine, writing about homemade remedies and the importance of a healthy lifestyle. These works highlighted the practical, no-frills attitude that defined his values.
By recording Roman history in their native language, Cato asserted the significance of Rome's past and its cultural identity. He bolstered national pride and promoted the idea that Rome had a glorious and unique history that deserved to be preserved.
Although Cato the Elder has sometimes been conflated with his great-grandson, Cato the Younger, these were distinct figures in history. Cato the Younger inherited his great-grandfather's dedication to Roman values, and became known for his rigid stance against the rise of Julius Caesar. As an eminent advocate for the Republic, he was noted even by Plutarch for embodying the spirit of his ancestor.
Overall, Marcus Porcius Cato's life and work had a profound impact on Roman society, and shaped the way future generations perceived the Roman Republic. Through his achievements in politics, military, and literature, Cato the Elder left an indelible mark on Rome's identity by fiercely championing its core values.
Works:
Works Not Surviving:
- Origines (a history of Rome from the foundation though the Second Punic War)
- Praecepta ad Filium (a collection of maxims)
- Carmen de Monibus (a set of rules and philosophy for every day life)
- A collection of over 150 speeches
Did you know...
Censors maintained the role of the Roman Senate, deciding who was morally fit to sit on the Senate.
