Most people are surprised to learn that the modern metropolis of London, England was originally founded by the Roman Empire as a frontier settlement on the fringes of its territory, some time around 50 AD. The site was chosen because of an existing bridge over the River Thames and a convergence of important roads, both of which were built by the Romans when they first came to Britain.
Over time, the city would become the heavily fortified headquarters from which the Roman legions would project their supremacy over the southern portion of the island of Britain, which was an important source of natural resources for the Empire.
After the fall of Rome, the defensive fortifications that existed in and around Londinium, as well as the river crossing, continued to make it an important city, paving the way for its rise to prominence on the world stage.
Founding and Early History
Shortly after the Roman military forces invaded the island of Britain and secured the area, they began building a transportation infrastructure of roads and bridges that would help to ensure their domination of the region by quickly moving troops and information.
This was a common Roman tactic when entering so-called barbarian lands. Before the Romans took control of this area, it was frequently contested by several local tribes, including the Catuvellauni, Trinovantes, and Cantiaci.
Sometime in the early first century AD, it was decided that a settlement would be built on the banks of the River Thames near a bridgehead and a nearby junction where many different roads came together. The settlement was named Londinium, although the etymological source of that name has been lost to history.
This first version of Londinium was a fairly modest community of traders and settlers with a small military garrison. However, most historians believe that the initial layout of the city was more or less the same as it would be in the Middle Ages. It ran along the River Thames and was bordered by Ludgate Hill on the west and Tower Hill to the east. Furthermore, the area was traversed by several small streams that are now all underground.
Boudican Revolt
While the Romans had taken control of much of southern Britain, the island was still populated by many rebellious peoples, who either begrudgingly accepted Roman domination or were openly defiant against it.
One of the most successful British uprisings against Roman rule was led by a queen of the Iceni tribe named Boudicca, who has achieved semi-mythical status in much of the English-speaking world.
In or around 60 AD, when Londinium was still a new settlement, a conflict arose between the Roman leadership and the Iceni, who had agreed to live under the Romans at the time. After King Prasutagus of the Iceni died, his will said that his wealth would be split amongst his daughters, including Boudicca, who would also become queen.
However, Roman law prohibited daughters from inheriting property at the time, and the Romans sought to simply annex the Iceni land once Prasutagus died. So, they defied the the king’s will and confiscated all land that was under Iceni control. According to the Roman historian Tacitus, when Boudicca came forward to protest these actions, the Romans flogged her and enslaved many members of her tribe’s nobility.
Incensed by these repeated violations, Boudicca began plans for an uprising along with the Trinovantes, another local British tribe. While the majority of the Roman forces in Britain under Gaius Suetonius Paulinus were occupied with a campaign on the Welsh island of Anglesey, Boudicca and her allies made their move with a reported force of 120,000 troops.
They first arrived at the provincial Roman capital of Camulodunum (modern day Colchester) and overwhelmed the small garrison there. Next, they set off for the Roman city of Londinium.
Paulinus received word of the uprising and rushed his forces back to Londinium using the impressive Roman road system. He arrived in time to intervene, but decided against it after seeing the size of the combined Iceni and Trinovantes forces, choosing instead to make his stand elsewhere. As a result, the thriving settlement of Londinium was completely destroyed, and every Roman who hadn’t evacuated was killed.
Next on the warpath was Verulamium (modern day St. Albans), which was also sacked by the British. Since these British tribes did not take captives or slaves, the city sackings were particularly brutal, and the death total is estimated to be as high as 80,000. The destruction of these cities has been verified by modern archaeologists.
Following these massive Roman losses, the Emperor Nero considered withdrawing Roman forces from Britain completely. However, Paulinus was able to marshal 10,000 troops and assemble to engage the British forces. Despite being heavily outnumbered, the Romans won an overwhelming victory.
According to the Roman historian Cassius Dio, all of the Iceni and Trinovantes were killed instead of being taken into slavery, which was a sign of the disdain that the Romans held for these peoples.
The location of this battle is unknown, but it put an end to the Boudiccan revolt. Boudicca either poisoned herself to avoid capture, or escaped and died later of illness, depending on the account.
Londinium would be rebuilt in the same location as before, but was equipped with new military fortifications that would make it more defensible in the future. The Romans also built a fortress on nearby Cornhill overlooking the main road in and out of Londinium, to further protect this important center of trade and commerce.
The Rise of Roman Londinium
After investing so many lives and resources in the defense of Londinium and the surrounding area, it was decided to make it a proper Roman city. When it was rebuilt, it was done in the Roman style with more sophisticated architecture and a more modern layout. For example, the streets in the city created a grid that was centered around important features, such as the bridge across the River Thames.
Sometime in the 70's or 80's AD, a forum was built in Londinium. Modern excavations have confirmed that this forum included many shops as well as a central basilica that served as the administrative headquarters of the city, housing the courts and local senate. This forum was located along the present day Gracechurch, Lombard, and Fenchurch Streets.
An amphitheater was constructed during this period, further lifting the city’s esteem as a colony of the Roman Empire. Londinium’s port was also rebuilt and modernized following Boudicca’s rebellion, beginning the longstanding tradition of London as a powerhouse of maritime commerce.
By the end of the 1st century AD, Londinium had grown to a population of about 60,000 residents, making it the largest city in all of Roman Britain (Britannia). It was also made the Roman provincial capital of Britannia around this same time. By now, the city possessed all the hallmarks of an affluent Roman city, including stone buildings, a bathhouse with plumbing, and well-regulated and taxed brothels.
Another spate of building projects began at some time before 120 AD, when the Roman Emperor Hadrian visited Londinium. Most historians believe that this is when the city spilled across the bridge and started to have a significant presence on the south bank of the River Thames.
Archaeological evidence has suggested that there was a significant fire or series of fires in the city around this time as well. Since there is no mention of this fire in Roman records, some historians speculate that it may have been the result of political unrest or another uprising.
The middle of the 2nd century AD marked the peak of Londinium’s prominence in the time of ancient Rome. As an increasingly important nexus of commerce and trade in the mineral-rich province of Britannia, it was likely the most impressive Roman city north of the Alps mountain range. Londinium was a densely populated place with sophisticated plumbing and sewers as well as impressive temples and stone buildings filled with fine art and complex mosaics.
Military installations were built with increased frequency as the city rose in importance. The greatest of these is the London Wall, which was built in the late 2nd or early 3rd century AD and consolidated existing defense structures into a wall that circled the entire city.
In the ancient world, walls were the ultimate defense, so this made Londinium all but unassailable. While it would fall into a state of disrepair following the Roman period, the London Wall would continue to exist and be useful for over 1,600 years. It continues to form the rough boundaries of the city even today.
The Decline of Roman Londinium
It is clear that there was some contraction of Londinium’s size and population in the late 2nd century AD. The exact cause of this is unknown, but most historians believe that the Antonine Plague, which was ravaging mainland Europe around this time, was the most likely culprit.
Other historians believe it may have been the result of an increase in rebellious activity in the area, which could have necessitated the building of the London Wall.
While there was a slight boost in economic activity in the middle of the 3rd century, Londinium would never again rise to its previous heights until the modern era.
In 286 AD, a Roman general named Carausius commanded Roman forces in Britain and the naval assets in the English Channel. That same year, he was given a death sentence by then emperor Maximilian for using this position to conspire with Saxon rebels and expand his personal wealth.
Carausius responded by claiming all of Britain and trying to establish an independent state. He ruled for seven years before being killed by his subordinate, Allectus.
A few years later, Roman forces led a campaign that would successfully retake Britain in 296 AD. This included a battle between Roman legionaries and Allecuts’ men in Londinium, which did further damage to a city that was already experiencing a moderate period of decline. Administrative restructuring of the island that followed would further demote the city in terms of importance.
In the 4th century AD, Londinium - and the entire province of Britannia in general - became less important as the Roman Empire faced more pressing concerns in other regions. So-called barbarian tribes such as Gaels, Picts, and Saxons became an increasingly large problem on the island.
Over the course of the century, several significant revolts had to be put down. These included a large-scale barbarian attack in 360 AD, another attack aided by Roman mutineers who opened the city gates in 367 AD, and the attempted takeover of Britain by the Roman Magnus Maximus in 382 AD.
By the beginning of the 5th century AD, there were hardly any Roman forces remaining in Londinium. Between 407 AD and 409 AD, Gaulic warriors took control of large swathes of present-day Spain and France, which drove a wedge between Rome and its colonies in Britain. This also created a significant barrier for trade, which greatly diminished Londinium’s importance back home in Rome.
In or around the year 410 AD, Emperor Constantine III withdrew all Roman legionaries from the island and informed the Britons to see to their own defense. This marks the official end of the Roman presence in Londinium.
Post-Roman Londinium
While a Roman presence had officially left the city, there were still a handful of wealthy and influential families who continued to live a Roman lifestyle in or around Londinium throughout the 5th century AD. However, without Roman protection, raids by Saxons, Irish, and Picts became more and more common.
By the 450s AD, the full-scale invasions that would eventually establish Anglo-Saxon Britain had begun in earnest.
In response to these attacks, many Britons fled to Londinium, but the city would not prove safe either. While the city’s exact fate was unknown, it was a mostly empty ruin by the beginning of the 6th century AD. The Anglo-Saxons established a new city called Lundenwic nearby to replace Londinium. This would put an end to anything that could be referred to as Roman Britain and began the Heptarchic period of English history.
London itself would not stay down for long, however, as there is evidence that the city was again an important port town by 680 AD.
