Roman Mythology

What is Roman Mythology?

Roman mythology is the combination of the beliefs, rituals, legends, stories and the observances of supernatural occurrences by the ancient Romans from early periods, during the formation and development of Roman civilization, until Christianity replaced the native religions of the Roman Empire.

The Roman god Jupiter, who was based on the Greek god Zeus

The realm of classical mythology is a fascinating one, replete with gods, goddesses, heroes, and monsters. It is a vibrant tapestry of tales that offer a glimpse into the minds and beliefs of the ancient Romans.

The rich narrative of Roman mythology was not simply a body of fantastical stories. Instead, it served as a cultural backbone influencing various aspects of Roman society, including the religious calendar, decisions by the Roman Senate, works of art, literary writings, plus much more.

In Greek civilization, deities were seen as unattainable beings. Mortals, despite their best efforts, could never hope to join the ranks of the gods. Instead, they strove to live virtuous lives, hoping to garner the favor of these celestial beings during their earthly existence.

In contrast, Romans believed that they could emulate the gods they worshipped. The deities were seen as models of virtue and valor, inspiring individuals to lead righteous lives. This belief also extended to the afterlife, where Romans envisioned a place among the gods.

Interestingly, a significant portion of Roman mythology is intertwined with the lore of the Greek goddesses and gods. This is a testament to the profound influence of Greek culture on the Romans. It also demonstrates how mythology can transcend geographical and cultural boundaries, shaping and being shaped by the societies it encounters.

So much of early Roman culture was derived from the existing and already well-established civilizations in the area. As we have seen on the Roman Navy page, where the Romans copied and then improved upon the ship building skills of the Phoenicians, Greeks and Carthaginians, the Romans readily absorbed ideas from other peoples.

With so many other civilizations in the Mediterranean area, all trying to make sense of the origin and workings of the world, it is therefore no surprise that their beliefs intermingled.

Understanding Roman Mythology

Myths held a significant role in ancient Roman culture, shaping the society’s worldview and values. They were not merely entertaining tales but served as moral and religious guides, instructing Romans on virtuous living and the workings of the universe. Famous Roman myths were also instrumental in constructing a sense of national identity and shared history.

Myths and stories played two important roles for the ancient Romans.

One was to try and explain situations and circumstances that they did not understand, such as the origins of the world, or why droughts occurred, for example.

The other was to provide a sense of security and reassurance with regards to the future. Instead of worrying that something bad could happen at random, having an unshakeable belief that the gods and goddesses could be pleased through actions, and thus preventing catastrophe, provided the Romans with a sense of control over their individual and collective destiny.

So long as they worshipped and made offerings in the right way and in the right amount, they believed that the deities would protect them from harm.

Delving into Roman mythology involves an exploration of its origins, key figures, and the values it espouses.

A significant part of this understanding comes from recognizing the influence of Greek culture on Roman religious beliefs. This is evident in the Roman pantheon, many of whom bear striking resemblances to Greek deities.

The Roman state demonstrated unique adaptability in integrating foreign deities into their religious structure. This was especially evident in the adoption of Greek gods, despite the Greeks' religious practices predating Roman civilization by over a thousand years. Tutelary deities, such as Castor and Pollux, were also absorbed into the Roman pantheon and worshipped by the Roman army. The Goddess of Wisdom, Athena in Greek mythology, was integrated as Minerva, demonstrating the Romans' openness to foreign influences in their religion.

Greek Influence on Roman Mythology

As the Romans expanded their empire across the Italian Peninsula and Sicily, they came into contact with Greek colonies, resulting in the integration of Greek deities into Roman religious practices. This confluence of religion and mythology gave birth to a unique pantheon that combined Roman gods with their Greek counterparts.

The birth of Romulus and Remus, the legendary founders of Rome, is one such myth that reflects Greek influence, echoing the tales of divine parentage and heroic feats that were so prevalent in Greek mythology.

While it was inevitable that these two ancient superpowers would one day clash (Read More: First Macedonian War), the Romans still greatly admired much of what the ancient Greeks had achieved.

The powerful yet competing city-states of Athens, Sparta, Thebes, Corinth etc had been united by Philip II of Macedon in the 4th Century BC. Then, under his son, Alexander the Great, the new Greek empire had expanded and conquered huge amounts of territory, including Egypt and land right up to the border of modern-day India.

We tend to think about the Roman empire as the all-powerful and mighty force that it became, but we need to remember that, in its early days, it was very much a small player in a world with well-established and far larger civilizations.

During this period, there is no doubt that the Romans would have looked at the Greek empire with mixed feelings of envy, awe, jealousy, and a source of inspiration for what could be achieved.

They would have marvelled at such things as their wealth, the buildings, the artwork etc of the ancient Greeks, including the then rather radical idea of democracy that would later become a key element of the Roman Republic.

The beliefs of this powerful and large civilization also had a profound influence on the Romans. After all, if they had achieved so much and could be clever enough to build such structures and create such artistic and literary works, then surely their thoughts about the origin and general workings of the universe must be true and accepted?

Perhaps it was just the sheer number of people that lived within this expanded Greek empire, all communicating with each other and people abroad when trading. With so many people spreading thoughts, and convincing those they met about these ideas, it is no wonder that Greek myths and legends quickly became embedded in the general thinking of the nearby fledgling Roman empire.

Divergence of Roman Mythology From Greek Mythology

One of the saddest aspects of modern-day religion is that, despite often sharing a surprisingly similar number of common beliefs, the culture and belief in how society should function and how people should live their lives has meant that each religion has, over the centuries, shaped and moulded these original concepts to fit their own purpose.

The Romans were no different. They adapted the Greek gods to make them more suitable for their own thinking and way of life.

For instance, the Romans had a stronger sense of belief in 'the collective' than the Greeks. Unlike the exploits of heroic individuals that can be found in many Greek tales and legends, the Romans believed that the actions of Roman citizens should benefit the people of Rome first and foremost, rather than individual glory being the priority.

This was a concept that was highly prevalent during the Republican period, and always drummed into the heads of powerful generals to prevent them wanting too much power, although with varying degrees of success!

As such, the characteristics of gods and goddesses were altered and changed to fit in better with Roman values and way of life. Having a population which worshipped deities that went against the grain of what those in power felt was in the best interests of the state would be a recipe for trouble.

The other reason why the Romans altered Greek deities over time was to simply claim them as their own. As Rome became more and more powerful, the Roman mindset became more accustomed to believing that they were the greatest civilization on the planet, as opposed to the feelings of reverence and wonder that they felt for the Greeks before.

It was far better to portray the gods as direct ancestors to the Roman people themselves. After all, if the original gods had "abandoned" the Greek people in their fight with the Romans, what would stop gods and goddesses not affiliated directly with the Romans from doing the same one day?

It was a great deal more comforting to believe in deities that you believed were present for the sole purpose of looking after you.

Later on, as the Roman Empire expanded over the centuries, it encountered and integrated yet more diverse cultures and religious beliefs. In the provinces of Gaul (modern-day France) for instance, the native Celtic beliefs blended with Roman practices, giving birth to the Gallo-Roman religion.

Related Section: Roman Religion

The Impact of Ovid's Metamorphoses

The impact of Ovid's Metamorphoses on Roman mythology cannot be overstated. This work served as a comprehensive guide to the mythological world of the Romans, weaving together a vast array of myths - from the creation of the world to the deification of Julius Caesar - into a cohesive narrative.

Ovid's Metamorphoses played a significant role in popularizing Roman myths, ensuring their enduring relevance and influence in subsequent generations. Many artists, writers, and scholars from the Renaissance period onwards drew from its tales, and it played a role in preserving and popularizing many myths regarding the ancient Romans. Although, it must also be remembered that Ovid often took creative liberties with the stories, adapting and changing them for his poetic purposes.

Echoes from Homer's Odyssey in Roman Myths

The vast expanse of Greek literature, including Homer's Odyssey, had a profound influence on Roman writers too. The adventures of Odysseus, his encounters with various gods, and his journey back home found echoes in Roman tales. For instance, the Roman god Mercury, similar to the Greek Hermes, played the role of a messenger and guide, much like how Hermes guided and aided Odysseus in his journey home to Ithaca.

The Founding Myths
Romulus and Remus, the legendary twin founders of Rome, and Aeneas, the Trojan hero and protagonist of Virgil's "Aeneid," are all intrinsically linked within the mythological narrative of the founding and early history of Rome.

According to classical mythology and literature, Aeneas was a Trojan prince and hero of the Trojan War. After the fall of Troy, he led a group of survivors on a journey to find a new home. Guided by fate and various prophecies, Aeneas and his followers eventually landed on the Italian peninsula. Virgil's "Aeneid" tells the story of Aeneas's trials and tribulations, including his romance with Dido, queen of Carthage, and his eventual battle against Turnus, the leader of the Rutuli in Italy.

Aeneas's arrival in Italy and his subsequent actions, including marrying Lavinia (the daughter of King Latinus), laid the foundation for what would become the Roman people. Aeneas's descendants would go on to establish Alba Longa, a legendary city in ancient Latium. The Julian family (to which Julius Caesar belonged) even claimed descent from Aeneas, further solidifying the Trojan hero's importance to Rome's legendary heritage.

Many generations after Aeneas, the twins Romulus and Remus were born. According to legend, they grew up in the city of Alba Longa, ruled by King Amulius. Romulus and Remus were the sons of Rhea Silvia, a vestal virgin, and Mars, the god of war. Due to a prophecy that they would overthrow their great-uncle, King Amulius of Alba Longa, they were abandoned to die. However, they were saved by a she-wolf who nursed them, and they were later raised by a shepherd named Faustulus. As adults, the twins decided to establish a new city. After a disagreement about the city's location, Romulus killed Remus and became the first king of what would become the city of Rome.

While Aeneas and the brothers Romulus and Remus are separated by many generations, they are connected through the narrative of the legendary origins of Rome. Aeneas represents the forebearers of the Roman people, while Romulus and Remus signify the actual foundation of the city of Rome itself.

Deities and Religion in Roman Mythology

The Roman pantheon was home to twelve major gods and goddesses, each with their distinct characteristics and lore. Jupiter, the king of the gods, was married to Juno, often identified as Jupiter's wife and sister, akin to the relationship between the Greek god Zeus and Hera. Mercury, the god of merchants and travelers, was equivalent to the Greek god Hermes. Venus, the goddess of love, drew her origins from the Greek goddess Aphrodite. These deities and their stories were integral to the ancient Roman religion.

As well as the major ones, the complete pantheon of Roman gods and goddesses is vast, containing literally hundreds of names, with each deity having a distinct role and significance.

Examples of Lesser-Known Roman Gods and Goddesses

Mercury

Mercury, known as the Roman god of trade, merchants, and travelers, played a significant role in the archaic Roman religion. As a messenger of the gods, Mercury symbolized communication and was often depicted with winged sandals. His influence permeated various aspects of Roman life, reflecting the diverse roles deities played in shaping Roman religious practices.

Vejovis

Vejovis, often depicted as a young man holding arrows with a goat at his side, was considered the god of healing. He was invoked during times of illness and plague, providing a source of hope and comfort for the ailing Romans.

Janus

Janus, known for his two faces, was the god of beginnings and transitions. He held a significant place in Roman rituals, marking the start and end of important events.

These deities, while not as widely recognized as Jupiter or Mars, were integral parts of Roman religious life, serving specific roles in the daily lives of the ancient Romans.

As already mentioned, the influence of the Greeks was significant in shaping Roman religious practices. By the 6th century BC, the Romans adopted many Greek gods, renaming them and incorporating them into their pantheon. This practice gave rise to the Roman version of many original gods.

Many Roman deities were equivalent to the Greek gods and goddesses, albeit with Roman names. Jupiter, the ruler of the gods in Roman pantheon, was derived from the Greek god Zeus. Similarly, Mercury, known for his swiftness, was the Roman counterpart to the Greek god Hermes. This borrowing and adaptation of deities showcase the permeable boundaries between Greek and Roman beliefs.

The Romans held their pantheon of deities in high regard, constructing majestic temples as places of worship. One of the most significant locations for these temples was Capitoline Hill. This hill, one of the Seven Hills of Rome, became a pivotal religious hub for the Roman populace. The grandeur of the temples and the ceremonies that took place there underlined the importance of the gods in everyday Roman life.

Another integral aspect of Roman religious practices involved the Vestal virgins, who were priestesses dedicated to Vesta, the goddess of the hearth and home. Their duties included maintaining the sacred fire of Vesta and performing rituals that were believed to ensure the well-being and continuity of the Roman state. Indeed, it was belived that if the fire went out, then Rome would fall.

Roman military commanders, after returning from successful campaigns, often engaged in religious practices to thank the gods for their victories. As a customary practice, these commanders would leave a portion of their war booty at temples, especially at the Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus on the Capitoline Hill. This act served as a token of gratitude, symbolizing their acknowledgment of divine favor in their military endeavors.

Aventine Hill and Roman Mythology
The Capitoline Hill was not the only one of the famed Seven Hills of Rome to have mythological and religious connotations. The Aventine Hill has long been steeped in mystery and legend. It occupies a special place not just in the physical topography of the city, but also in the intricate tapestry of Roman mythology and folklore.

The name 'Aventine' itself is believed to have mythological roots. According to one legend, it is derived from 'Aventinus', a king of Alba Longa who was buried there. Another, and perhaps more popular legend, links it to the Latin word "aves," meaning "birds." This version has it that when Romulus and Remus were looking for a sign from the gods about where to establish their city, they saw birds flying over the Aventine Hill, a clear omen of the place's significance.

The Aventine Hill was originally outside the official boundaries of the city of Rome, making it a popular dwelling place for foreigners, particularly the Sabines, and those who wished to live slightly removed from the city's hustle and bustle.

Over time, the Aventine Hill had an association with the goddess Diana, the goddess of hunting and the moon. In ancient Rome, the Aventine was often seen as the plebeian hill, distinct from the more patrician Palatine Hill. Over time, various temples and sanctuaries were built on the Aventine, reflecting the religious practices and needs of the community that resided there.

One of the temples on the Aventine was dedicated to Diana. This temple to Diana was particularly significant for the plebeians. It was founded, according to tradition, as a place where slaves and plebeians could worship, and it stood in contrast to the Temple of Diana on the Palatine Hill, which was reserved for patricians. The Aventine Temple of Diana became a symbol of plebeian rights and religious freedom.

Another deity closely associated with the Aventine is Ceres, the goddess of agriculture. Ceres had a notable presence on the Aventine Hill. Along with Liber and Libera, she was venerated in a temple there, underscoring the hill's plebeian character. This temple held significant importance due to its association with the Cerealia, a festival celebrated in mid-April in honor of Ceres. Additionally, the Aventine and its religious sites served as focal points for the plebeians' political and religious activities.

As Rome grew and evolved, so did the Aventine. It became a fashionable residential area, particularly during the late Republic, attracting both plebeians and the affluent. The hill's religious significance also evolved over time, embracing a variety of deities and religious observances. The Temple of Hercules Victor is just one example, reflecting the diverse spiritual life of the hill's inhabitants.

Roman Mythology in Astronomy

One of the fascinating aspects of Roman mythology is its influence on astronomy. The Romans, like many ancient civilizations, looked to the heavens for guidance and insight. They saw the celestial bodies as representations of their deities, attributing divine characteristics to the planets and stars. This connection between myths and astronomy was a significant part of Roman culture, influencing their understanding of the universe and their place within it.

How Roman Deities Influenced the Naming of Celestial Bodies

Viewing the sky as a divine canvas, the Romans named the planets after their gods and goddesses, believing that these heavenly bodies possessed the characteristics of the deities they represented. This belief not only shaped their understanding of the cosmos but also influenced their daily life, as they sought guidance from these celestial deities in their endeavors. We still use these names for planets even today.

The Role of Women in Roman Mythology

Women held prominent roles in Roman mythology. The Sabine women, for instance, played a pivotal role in the early foundation of Rome. According to legend, the early Romans, lacking wives, abducted women from the neighboring Sabine tribe. This event culminated in a war, which ended with the Sabine women intervening to broker peace.

Another notable mention is the tale of Tarpeia, a Roman woman who betrayed her city for gold but was crushed under shields and became associated with the Tarpeian Rock.

A female goddess which we have already talked about is Diana, the goddess of the hunt. Revered for her prowess and connection to nature, Diana was a central figure in the Roman religious landscape. Her significance not only lay in her mastery over hunting but also as a protector of women and children.

Such tales underscore the multifaceted roles women - both mortal and divine - played in the myths of ancient Rome, as well as the Vestal Virgins who were actively engaged in maintaining the sacred flame to prevent the foreboding legend of Rome's demise from coming true.

Translations and Adaptations of Roman Myths

The rich narratives of Roman mythology have been subject to various translations and adaptations over the centuries. Preserved in the annals of Roman antiquities, these myths have been reinterpreted through different cultural lenses, each bringing a unique perspective to the age-old tales, with many modern references still echoing the legacy of these ancient deities.

The Roman tradition of myth-telling has been adapted and translated into numerous languages and forms, continuing to captivate audiences with its timeless themes and characters.

The study of Roman mythology has been the focus of many renowned scholars throughout history. Dionysius of Halicarnassus, an ancient historian, chronicled the history and myths of Rome. Verrius Flaccus, another distinguished scholar, delved into the etymology of Roman names. In more recent times, Oxford University has been at the forefront of research in ancient Greece and Rome, furthering our understanding of these classical civilizations.

Modern interpretations and translations of Roman mythology continue to explore and reinterpret the ancient narratives. The field of comparative mythology offers fascinating insights into the myths of ancient Rome, drawing parallels and contrasts with other mythological traditions.

Cults

Along with the myths, legends, official and unofficial gods and goddesses, there also existed numerous cults.

Imperial Cult

Many Roman emperors were deified and revered as gods after their deaths. In fact, this became standard practice for all emperors from Severus Alexander in 235 AD onwards.

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Cults of the Imperial Legions

The religion practiced by the soldiers of an imperial legion was often quite a mixed bag.

The expansion of the Roman empire during this period (from Augustus in 27 BC onwards) meant that the Roman military relied more than ever on soldiers from overseas territories. These men brought with them their own particular religions, superstitions, myths and beliefs from their homelands.

Not only this, but the legions also placed so much emphasis on togetherness that their legionary standard (Aquila: Latin for "Eagle") almost become a symbol for a form of worship and reverence. To lose it was considered such a symbol of disgrace and tragedy, that soldiers willingly risked their lives in a battle for the sole purpose of trying to win it back.

FIND OUT MORE ABOUT CULTS OF THE IMPERIAL LEGIONS

Roman Domestic Cult

While the Romans had always held extravagant state festivals to gods like Jupiter and Mars, nearer and dearer to most Roman families was a simple, household-based religion focused around local and familial spirits.

The worship of these spirits is what truly defines Roman religion, and what really separates it from the sister religion of Greek paganism.

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The Cult of Isis

The Cult of Isis was, thanks to Ptolemy, Hellenized to a degree that the Roman mind could understand it, and yet still foreign enough to be exotic and alien, which was part of its appeal to many Romans.

When the cult of Isis swept into Rome via Hellenistic sailors and Egyptian emigrants, it became extremely popular with women and the lower classes, including slaves. Fearing a religious unification of the lower strata of Roman society, and fearing the loss of piety in the traditional Roman gods of the state, the Senate repeatedly placed restrictions on the new cult.

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Christianity

The rise of Christianity to dominate western religion may very well have been inevitable, but certain key moments along the way helped to secure this position.

The emergence of Christianity in the Roman Empire was based on many factors, and its spread was an indication of massive social upheaval and changing environments.

Click on the link below for a comprehensive article on Christianity in the Roman empire, including its origins, its spread, the persecutions of Christians, and a list of the Popes of Rome from 32 - 483 AD.

FIND OUT MORE ABOUT CHRISTIANITY IN ANCIENT ROME

Concluding the Journey into Roman Mythology

The line between history and myth often blurs when studying ancient civilizations, especially in the Roman world. Myths were not just stories; they were the cultural fabric that intertwined with the historical events of the time.

For example, the legend of Romulus and Remus gave a mythical origin to the city of Rome, while the tales surrounding figures like Divus Julius (Julius Caesar deified) or the last Roman king, Tarquinius Superbus, merged historical characters with mythological elements.

The religion of the early Romans was so changed by the addition of numerous and conflicting beliefs in later times, and by the assimilation of a vast amount of Greek mythology, that it cannot ever be reconstructed precisely.

That said, exploring Roman mythology offers a fascinating journey into the beliefs and narratives that shaped the ancient Roman Empire. The myths of Rome, intertwined with Greek myths, provide a rich tapestry of tales filled with gods, goddesses, heroes, and monsters. From the exploits of the Roman goddess Venus to the adventures of Aeneas, these stories reveal the values, fears, and aspirations of the Roman people.

Roman mythology can be viewed as a companion to Greek mythology. The Romans, especially in their early days, were significantly influenced by the Greeks in various aspects, from art and architecture to religion and philosophy. The Greek god Poseidon, for instance, found his counterpart in the Roman Neptune. Such parallels are ubiquitous in the pantheon of these two ancient civilizations. Greek religion, with its elaborate rituals and pantheon, was a rich source of inspiration. The Greek religious practices, when adopted by the Romans, were sometimes modified to fit the Roman ethos but often retained their core essence.

The influence of these myths extends beyond ancient Rome, with echoes in the literature, art, and popular culture of subsequent periods. Roman writers, such as Ovid and Virgil, have immortalized these myths, ensuring their enduring presence in our collective imagination.

The intriguing richness and far-reaching influence of Roman myths are an integral part of classical antiquity. The intricate knowledge of Greek and Roman mythology, cemented in the ancient world, served as a cornerstone for many stories, practices, and beliefs. Roman authors creatively intertwined these myths with their history, creating a captivating blend of fact and fiction. The Roman calendar, names, and even the naming of celestial bodies, were deeply influenced by these myths.

Equally as enriching are the stories that center on Rome's founding and rise, such as the story of Romulus and Remus. Considered the sons of the mortal woman Rhea Silvia and the god Mars, their tale, steeped in divine intervention and human ambition, is a testament to the richness of Roman mythology.

Another tale brings to life Numa Pompilius, the second king of Rome, who is guided by the nymph Egeria to establish religious and political institutions.

Reflecting on the richness and influence of Roman myths, it is clear that they shaped the course of Roman history, culture, and religion. Encapsulating the ethos of an entire civilization, these tales continue to captivate, inspire, and educate, carrying the legacy of the Roman Republic into the modern world.