Ancient Roman Architecture, Buildings and Construction
Roman architecture played a pivotal role in defining the artistic and engineering accomplishments of the ancient world. Fundamentally different from previous architectural traditions, ancient Roman architecture harnessed the power of concrete, arches, and vaulting to create previously unheard of spacious interiors, such as the Pantheon.
These innovations allowed the Romans to construct awe-inspiring buildings, such as temples, thermae, palaces, mausolea, and churches, with large, well-defined interior spaces. The first builders in the history of architecture to recognize the potential of domes, they set a lasting impact on the world of design and construction.
Moreover, famous Roman architect Vitruvius documented the principles and techniques of their architectural practices in his work, On Architecture, providing invaluable insights into the ancient Roman architectural landscape.
Throughout history, Roman architecture has been celebrated for its innovative engineering marvels, such as the development of aqueducts that enabled the rise of cities with a stable water supply (the Romans developed over 500km of aqueducts to bring fresh water into Rome). This, along with over 50,000 miles of roads, show the size and strength of the empire's architecture and construction skills.
This rich architectural heritage continues to inspire and influence the modern world, showcasing the remarkable feats of the ancient Roman civilization.
Historical Context
Before the Romans, the most commonly used building style was the post and lintel. This way of building was, of course, limited in the weight it could carry, and therefore the span between the supports.
The Romans changed all this by introducing new advanced methods of architecture; the column and the arch. With these methods, the Romans were able to construct bigger temples and buildings than ever before.
Roman architecture evolved as the Republic grew, incorporating Greek influences from regions like Magna Graecia and adopting new technologies and materials.
During the Roman Republic, the Empire expanded primarily through military conquest, which brought Roman architecture in close contact with Greek culture. This led to the adoption of the classical Greek architectural orders:
- The first and most basic type was called the Doric Style. It's plain features where not as attractive as future styles, but it served the primary purpose - to hold up huge and heavy buildings!
- The Ionic Style, with its more decorative base and top, was the next type to be used. It still had the same purpose as the Doric style, but it futher increased the awe power of the building it was used with.
- The Cornithian type was the most visually-impressive of all Roman columns. It's fine details and size made the other two types look rather ordinary in comparison.
The Corinthian order, in particular, was a favorite among Roman architects, giving many Roman buildings a distinctly Greek appearance throughout the Empire.
As the Roman Empire progressed into the Augustan period, architecture played a crucial role in reflecting the state's power and grandeur. Roman architects differentiated themselves from their Greek predecessors by extensively using concrete, arches, and vaulting in their structures. These innovations allowed them to create vast interior spaces previously unheard of in ancient architecture.
Some key features of Roman architecture include:
- Use of concrete and brick as primary building materials
- Arches and vaults that distributed weight and allowed for large interior spaces
- Monumental structures such as aqueducts, amphitheaters, and public baths
- Adoption of classical Greek architectural orders with a preference for the Corinthian style
- New methods of displaying visual records of events, such as the battle scenes on Trajan's Column
Through these developments, Roman architecture left a lasting impact on the ancient world, shaping the architectural landscape across the vast Roman Empire.
Elements of Roman Architecture
Roman architecture is characterized by its revolutionary use of several elements that allowed the Romans to create unique structures and designs.
Arches and Vaults
As mentioned above, one of the key elements in Roman architecture is the arch, which was widely used in various constructions. The ancient Romans frequently incorporated arches in aqueducts, basilicas, triumphal arches, and other structures. The use of arches allowed them to create larger open spaces, as well as support the weight of heavy structures.
In addition, the Romans experimented with vaults, which combined a series of arches to create a curved ceiling or roof, further expanding the possibilities of interior spaces.
The concept of the arch was further extended in the Middle Ages with the barrel vault and other types of vaults, which became the central theme of the Romanesque and Gothic Cathedrals.
Columns and Colonnades
Columns were another essential feature in Roman architecture, adapted from Greek designs, but often modified to suit Roman aesthetics.
Colonnades, a series of columns supporting an entablature, were commonly employed in Roman public spaces, temples, and private buildings, creating a sense of grandeur and continuity.
Baths and Aqueducts
Roman baths, such as the Baths of Caracalla, were monumental complexes designed for leisure and relaxation. These buildings featured large open spaces, vaulted ceilings, and were adorned with mosaics, statues, busts of famous Romans and other decorative elements. The extensive use of concrete and arches allowed for the construction of impressive, large-scale bath complexes, complete with hypocaust heating systems.
Similarly, Roman aqueducts were remarkable feats of engineering that used arches to transport water over long distances, supplying cities across the empire with fresh water. They were typically built using different materials such as travertine, tufa, pozzolana, and lime to create a sturdy and durable structure.
These architectural feats, such as baths and aqueducts, continue to inspire awe and admiration to this day. Thanks in large part to the quality of the construction and materials used, we are fortunate to see what remains of these structures and marvel at their scale.
Materials and Construction Techniques
Brick and Marble
Brick was another common material used by the Romans. They were used in various construction projects, including walls and arches.
Brick was often preferred over other materials for its ability to provide structural support and resist wear and tear caused by environmental conditions, as well as protecting against fire spreading from a Roman kitchen for example.
Additionally, the ancient Romans utilized marble for its decorative properties and ability to convey a sense of grandeur and elegance. Marble was typically used for columns, statues, and intricate interior decoration of buildings.
Roman Concrete
Roman concrete (opus caementicium) was an essential material in Roman architecture that allowed for the creation of larger and more complex interior spaces, such as the Pantheon and the Colosseum.
It was made by combining volcanic ash, lime, and water along with aggregate such as rock, ceramic tile, lime clasts, and brick rubble, to create a strong and versatile material that could be molded into complex shapes, including vaulting and domes.
The construction of vaults and arches required the use of wedge-shaped blocks called voussoirs. The Romans were skilled at creating these blocks with precision, ensuring the right fit and providing added support for the structure.
Tile
Tile was another crucial material used in various aspects of Roman architecture, such as roofing and flooring. Roman floor and roof tiles were typically made from clay or terracotta and offered durability, weather resistance, and were fairly quick and inexpensive to produce in the large quantities needed.
Roof tiles could also be made out of other materials if necessary. The Pantheon's dome is made of concrete and is covered with large, circular tiles that decrease in size as they ascend towards the center of the dome. The tiles are made of a lightweight volcanic stone called pumice, which was mixed with cement to create a durable and lightweight building material.
The Pantheon's tilework is a testament to the skill and innovation of Roman architects and engineers, who needed to create tiles which weighed less than normal roof tiles in order to prevent the structure possibly collapsing.
Plus, of course, small tiles were used in Roman mosaics. A fine example of ancient Roman mosaic tilework can still be seen today at the House of the Faun in Pompeii.
The House of the Faun is a well-preserved Roman villa that features intricate tile mosaics on its floors. The mosaics depict a variety of scenes, including mythological figures, animals, and geometric patterns.
The mosaics are made from small, colored tiles called tesserae, which were arranged to create intricate and detailed designs. For a wealthy Roman, even the floor could be a work of art.
Influential Architectural Works
The Colosseum
The Colosseum, also known as the Flavian Amphitheater, is an iconic symbol of Ancient Rome. Built between 70-80 AD, it is the largest amphitheater ever built and a testament to the engineering prowess of the Romans.
Constructed mainly from travertine limestone, the Colosseum was used for gladiatorial contests, public spectacles, and other forms of entertainment. The design of the Colosseum has influenced many modern-day stadiums and arenas.
The Pantheon
Another masterpiece of Roman architecture is the Pantheon, one of the best-preserved examples from Ancient Rome. Completed in 126 AD under the reign of Emperor Hadrian, the Pantheon was dedicated to the gods of Roman religion.
The most striking feature of the Pantheon is its dome, which was an architectural marvel at the time (and, of course, is still greatly admired today!). Built using a mix of concrete and lightweight aggregate, the dome remains the largest unsupported dome in the world. The Pantheon's design has inspired many subsequent buildings, including Thomas Jefferson's Monticello and the United States Capitol Rotunda.
The Forum
The Roman Forum was the center of Roman public life, serving as a venue for various activities such as politics, commerce, and religious ceremonies. Established by Augustus, the first Roman Emperor, the Forum played a pivotal role in the growth of the Roman Empire and its many provinces.
Numerous temples, basilicas, and other public buildings adorned the Forum, showcasing the architectural influences from the Greeks, Etruscans, and other cultures that contributed to the development of Roman architectural style.
Some of the notable structures within the Forum include the Temple of Saturn, the Basilica Julia, and the Arch of Septimius Severus. These buildings represent the mixture of architectural orders like Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian which, as noted previously, were the basis for Roman architectural aesthetic.
The Roman Forum remains an important archaeological site, providing valuable insights into the daily lives of ancient Romans and their architectural achievements.
Types of Roman Buildings
As we have seen, the architecture of the ancient Romans included a wide variety of structures, from housing and villas to basilicas and temples, as well as amphitheaters and triumphal arches. These buildings showcased not only the Romans' mastery of construction techniques but also their creativity in design.
Housing and Villas
In ancient Roman cities like Pompeii and Ostia, various types of housing could be found, including apartment buildings and individual homes. Roman residential housing often featured central courtyards (atria) surrounded by rooms. The Romans also used their opus caementicium concrete to create multi-story apartment buildings (insulae) with a variety of layouts.
Villas were luxurious country houses typically owned by wealthy Romans. Many of these structures boasted opulent interiors with intricate decorations, mosaic floors, and frescoes on the walls. Some larger villas even included thermal baths, gardens, and agricultural facilities.
Basilicas and Temples
Roman basilicas were large, rectangular public buildings that served various purposes, such as courts, meeting halls, or marketplaces. These structures often featured classical orders like Doric, Ionic, Corinthian, Tuscan, and Composite in their designs, with columns lining the interior to support the roof.
Temples were religious buildings dedicated to the gods and goddesses of the Roman pantheon. They usually had a cella (a central inner chamber) housing a statue of the deity, and a portico with columns at the entrance.
Temples were often situated within sacred precincts and could serve as focal points for public worship and ceremonies.
Amphitheaters and Arches
Amphitheaters, like the famous Colosseum in Rome, were large circular or oval structures with rows of seating surrounding a central performance area. They were used for public spectacles, such as gladiatorial contests, animal hunts, and theatrical performances. Their sophistication often required complex engineering, using arches and vaults to support the massive structures.
Triumphal arches were monumental structures erected to commemorate significant events, like military victories or the accession of a new emperor. They were typically adorned with sculptures and reliefs depicting the event or the individuals involved.
Triumphal arches served not only as architectural landmarks but also as symbols of the power and achievements of the Imperial period. The Arch of Titus is one of the best surviving examples we have still standing.
Legacy and Influence
Roman architecture has significantly shaped the course of Western culture, leaving a lasting impact on architectural styles and development.
One of the main achievements of Roman architecture was the refinement and expansion of classical architecture from ancient Greece. The Roman techniques enhanced the structural integrity of buildings and created sophisticated designs that influenced subsequent styles, such as Romanesque and classical architecture, throughout Western Europe.
Visiting Roman Ruins Today
Today, numerous Roman ruins can be found across Europe and beyond, showcasing the architectural marvels of the Roman Empire. These ruins not only offer insights into the ancient world, but also serve as reminders of the significant influence that Roman architecture has had on subsequent civilizations.
As well as the structures already mentioned in this article, some other notable examples of Roman ruins that can be visited today include:
- Pont du Gard in Nîmes, France
- Diocletian's Palace in Split, Croatia
- The remains of Pompeii and Herculaneum
- The ancient city of Jerash in Jordan
In addition to directly influencing Western European architecture, Roman designs and techniques spread beyond its borders. The Persians, for example, adopted the Roman post-and-lintel system in their construction. This architectural feature demonstrates the far-reaching impact of Roman innovations.
Overall, the legacy of Roman architecture can be found in countless structures and styles throughout world history, and its influence continues to be felt in modern architecture and design. By visiting Roman ruins and studying the contributions of Roman architects, one can better appreciate the important role that this ancient civilization continues to play in shaping our world today.
